# Ludumina: proposed GCSE Physics learning-game programme for England

**Planning draft v1.0 · evidence checked 30 September 2026 (Singapore date) · for review, not a released or accredited course.**

This proposal defines an AREA → UNIT → LECTURE programme for England. It supplies original learning objectives, game activities, practice, assessment criteria and production constraints for all eight requested areas. **AQA is a provisional planning reference, not an exam board selected by the user.** The mappings cover AQA GCSE Physics 8463 and the physics component of AQA Combined Science: Trilogy 8464. This document does not establish alignment with every board, does not cover the biology/chemistry components of Combined Science, and does not certify any built game as fully aligned. All lectures below are proposals.

The official content has been checked at topic/subsection level and translated into a proposed coverage map. Release needs an independent clause-by-clause audit of the actual lessons and assessments, including tier flags, mathematical skills and real practical provision. A curriculum plan is evidence of intended coverage, not evidence that a delivered product teaches it effectively.

## Contents

1. [Authority, sources and boundaries](#authority)
2. [Course books as supporting references](#course-books)
3. [Teaching pattern, scope flags and proposed ratings](#teaching-pattern)
4. [Progression and production rules](#progression)
5. [Course map and coverage matrix](#course-map)
6. [Energy](#energy)
7. [Forces and motion](#forces-and-motion)
8. [Electricity](#electricity)
9. [Particle model of matter](#particle-model-of-matter)
10. [Waves](#waves)
11. [Magnetism and electromagnetism](#magnetism-and-electromagnetism)
12. [Atomic physics](#atomic-physics)
13. [Space physics](#space-physics)
14. [Unit assessments and area capstones](#assessments)
15. [Mathematics and working scientifically](#skills)
16. [Required practical and apparatus matrix](#practicals)
17. [Gaps, release gates and whole-course review](#review)
18. [Evidence and completeness record](#evidence)

<a id="authority"></a>
## 1. Authority, sources and boundaries

| Source | Version/date and precise use | Primary link |
|---|---|---|
| DfE single-science subject content, England | PDF cover June 2015; current government-linked file named “updated May 2019”. Physics pp.33–45; working scientifically pp.7–8; Appendix 1 equations pp.46–47, Appendix 2 SI units p.48, Appendix 3 mathematics p.49, Appendix 4 apparatus pp.50–51. Page numbers here are printed pages, not zero-based PDF indices. | [Publication page](https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/gcse-single-science); [current linked content](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) |
| DfE Combined Science content, England | PDF cover June 2015; current government-linked file named “updated May 2019”. Physics pp.28–36; skills pp.7–8; equations pp.37–38; SI p.39; maths p.40; apparatus pp.41–42. Used to distinguish national Combined scope from separate science. | [Publication page](https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/gcse-combined-science); [current linked content](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) |
| AQA Physics 8463 | Specification v1.1, 30 September 2019, retrieved 30 September 2026; §§3,4,7,8,9. Detailed provisional content/tier/practical mapping. | [Specification PDF](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF); [live specification index](https://www.aqa.org.uk/subjects/physics/gcse/physics-8463/specification) |
| AQA Combined Science: Trilogy 8464 | Specification v1.1, 4 October 2019, retrieved 30 September 2026; §§3,6,9,10 and physics equations appendix. Detailed provisional shared-content mapping. | [Specification PDF](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF); [live physics content](https://www.aqa.org.uk/subjects/science/gcse/science-8464/specification/physics-subject-content) |
| Current equation-sheet arrangements | AQA announcement dated 1 September 2026: full sheets in 2027, continued support for lifetime of current qualifications from 2028 under revised conditions. Teach selection, substitution, rearrangement, interpretation and units. Recheck the target exam-year sheet before release. | [AQA update](https://www.aqa.org.uk/news/gcse-maths-sciences-formulae-equation-sheets-2027-28); [Ofqual decision](https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/proposed-changes-to-the-assessment-of-mathematics-physics-and-combined-science-gcses/outcome/decisions-proposed-changes-to-the-assessment-of-mathematics-physics-and-combined-science-gcses) |

All external links in this document were checked or located on 30 September 2026; publication/version dates are distinct from this access date. Government landing pages show a 2015 update date while their attached filenames refer to May 2019; preserve that distinction rather than inventing a new publication date. The 2019 AQA PDF introduction mentions eight practicals, but its authoritative §8.2 enumerates **ten** Physics practicals; this plan uses those ten. Trilogy physics uses eight, numbered 14–21 in the qualification-wide list.

DfE specifies England’s subject-content framework; awarding organisations set the detailed assessable specification. AQA topic order is not a mandatory teaching sequence. References written “4… / 6…” mean Physics 8463 / Trilogy 8464 respectively. A dash means that separate-Physics requirement has no corresponding Trilogy content section. DfE page references on each lecture apply to the stated topic, not an invented DfE numerical subsection system. AQA “Atomic structure” is presented to learners here as the broader area “Atomic physics”.

Permissible draft description: “A proposed England GCSE Physics study programme, mapped provisionally to AQA 8463 and the physics component of 8464.” Do not state “AQA approved”, “all-board aligned”, “complete GCSE Combined Science”, “guaranteed grade” or “required practicals completed” from this proposal.

<a id="course-books"></a>
## 2. Course books as supporting references

**England does not prescribe one national GCSE Physics textbook.** DfE sets content and advises schools to select resources appropriate to their curriculum; the Education Minister explicitly stated that schools choose specific books/resources within the national curriculum framework in [Hansard, 30 June 2025](https://hansard.parliament.uk/lords/2025-06-30/debates/A4FB6DCA-A87C-41DA-AAEC-BBF2BE2D4A28/SchoolLibraries). The school-choice statement and [DfE resource-selection guidance, updated 18 September 2025](https://www.gov.uk/guidance/buying-for-schools-things-to-consider-before-you-start/books-and-educational-resources) support that conclusion; neither prescribes a Physics title. AQA also says purchasing an approved book is not essential: [AQA approved-textbook policy](https://www.aqa.org.uk/about-us/who-we-are/our-standards/approved-textbooks).

These are suitable *supporting* candidates for the provisional AQA route, not a purchasing instruction, a national adoption ranking or evidence of Ludumina endorsement. AQA’s [official approved-textbook finder](https://www.aqa.org.uk/search?secondaryResourceType=Textbooks) was inspected, but its dynamically loaded results did not expose a complete title list in the research reader. Approval is asserted below only where the publisher expressly confirms it; an AQA-hosted sample is recorded as such, not silently treated as proof of current edition approval.

| Course book | Board/qualification and edition evidence | Public content inspected; implication for Ludumina |
|---|---|---|
| Collins **AQA GCSE Physics 9–1 Student Book**, Sandra Mitchell/Charles Golabek; ISBN 9780008158774 | Separate Physics; publisher identifies AQA, Foundation/Higher support and AQA approval; published 20 June 2016. [Publisher](https://collins.co.uk/products/9780008158774). | [AQA-hosted Energy sample](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/textbooks/sample/gcse-physics/AQA-8463-COLLINS-SAMPLE.PDF) inspected: prior ideas, concept development, maths/practical tasks and progression checks. Use a concept → measurement → interpretation progression with tier flags; create original tasks rather than copy spreads. |
| Collins **AQA GCSE Physics for Combined Science: Trilogy 9–1 Student Book**, same authors; ISBN 9780008175061 | Physics component of 8464, not a separate Physics course; publisher confirms AQA approval; published 24 August 2016. [Publisher](https://collins.co.uk/products/9780008175061). | [AQA-hosted sample](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/textbooks/sample/gcse-trilogy/AQA-8464-COLLINS-SAMPLE.PDF) located: Energy and graduated end-of-topic practice. Separate qualification editions reinforce the need for filtered routes and removal of separate-only requirements. Full book was not accessed. |
| Hodder/Hachette **AQA GCSE (9–1) Physics Student Book**, Nick England/Steve Witney; ISBN 9781471851377 | Separate Physics; current [publisher record](https://www.hachettelearning.com/physics/aqa-gcse-9-1-physics-student-book) identifies authors, publication 10 June 2016 and print edition. AQA-hosted sample exists; current-edition approval badge not independently established here. | [Official hosted sample contents](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/textbooks/sample/gcse-physics/AQA-8463-HODDER-SAMPLE.PDF) inspected: starts with forces and motion, then Energy, Waves, Electricity, Magnetism, Particle model, Atomic structure and Space. Demonstrates an alternative valid teaching order and the usefulness of splitting force interactions from motion measurement. |
| Oxford **AQA GCSE Physics Student Book**, Jim Breithaupt, series editor Lawrie Ryan; ISBN 9780198359395 | Separate Physics; [AQA Bookshop listing](https://www.aqabookshop.co.uk/product/aqa-gcse-physics-student-book/jim-breithaupt/9780198359395/) identifies the title and integrated maths/practical/synoptic support. This is title evidence, not an independent current approval audit. | Public listing inspected; full contents/sample not successfully accessed. Use its described integration of worked maths, practical thinking and synoptic links as a design prompt only; no chapter-level claims. Verify newer editions if selected. |

There is no claim that every school uses these books. Full copyrighted books were not obtained. This proposal contains original exercises, examples and explanations; do not import publisher text, diagrams or questions into a commercial resource without appropriate rights. Specifications and DfE content remain the coverage authority when a sample book’s sequence, simplified model or older exam instructions differ.

<a id="teaching-pattern"></a>
## 3. Teaching pattern, scope flags and proposed ratings

The repository’s [Math Orbital Lab README](../../math-orbital-lab/README.md) and [course outline](../../math-orbital-lab/docs/course_outline.md) use explanation → validated demonstration → exercise, with assisted, independent and transfer stages, contextual hooks, captions and hints. Physics adapts this to **prediction → demonstration/experiment → explanation → calculation/data/explanation practice → independent exit check → transfer**. Prediction is recorded before reveal; an incorrect prediction is a teaching opportunity, not a punishment. Lecturer narration remains concise and replayable; the experiment supplies evidence before the explanatory rule is consolidated.

Suggested lecture time allocation: 2–4 minutes predict; 5–8 demonstrate/measure; 4–7 explain; 8–15 guided/independent practice; 3–5 exit. Practical-heavy and capstone sessions run longer. Durations below include virtual tasks and assessment, exclude school laboratory time, and are provisional estimates to validate with learners.

| Scope flag | Meaning for route filtering |
|---|---|
| C | Content shared by AQA Physics and Trilogy, Foundation and Higher unless a local extension says otherwise. |
| C-H | Shared content assessed at Higher Tier only. |
| P | Separate AQA Physics only, both tiers unless explicitly qualified. |
| P-H | Separate Physics, Higher Tier only. |
| C + H extension | Shared core, with a separately gated Higher element inside the lesson. |
| C + P extension/practical | Shared theory; the specified extra theory, assessment or RP belongs only to separate Physics. |
| Mixed flags | Teach/assess each named branch independently; do not assign the strongest flag to the entire lesson or hide shared core. |

“Ratings” is interpreted provisionally as **difficulty, mastery assessment and duration**, all Ludumina design choices. Difficulty 1 = identification/one-step qualitative; 2 = single relationship and routine substitution; 3 = multi-step maths/data or sustained explanation; 4 = more demanding Higher synthesis/model evaluation. Difficulty is not an exam tier or a GCSE grade. A Foundation learner may encounter a difficulty-3 practical lesson; a P lesson can be easy and still outside Combined scope.

Each lecture uses its specific exit criteria plus this proposed mastery rubric:

| Rating | Proposed evidence |
|---|---|
| 0 — not yet evidenced | No valid independent reasoning or only guessing/unsafe model selection. |
| 1 — supported | Correct with substantive hint/demo or unresolved conceptual/units error. |
| 2 — independent | Meets the lecture exit criteria unaided with clear units/reasoning and no critical misconception. |
| 3 — transferable | Meets level 2 and solves a changed-context item or critiques a model/method with evidence. |

Advance at level 2; schedule a fresh retrieval check after about one week and a transfer check after about four weeks. These intervals are proposed, adjustable practice design, not official requirements. Offer retries with changed values/context, diagnose the error and retain hint/attempt evidence. Do not convert these ratings into GCSE predicted grades. A numerical answer alone does not establish mastery if the required reasoning is absent. Set numerical tolerances from stated precision; diagrams use declared scale/angle tolerances. Ensure critical misconceptions are corrected before a “mastered” badge.

<a id="progression"></a>
## 4. Progression and production rules

**P0 preflight (support, not a ninth subject area):** SI quantities, reading scales, mass versus weight, time/length/area/volume conversions, prefixes/standard form, estimation, fractions/percentages, squares/square roots, formula substitution/rearrangement, axis labels/gradients and fair-test language. Use diagnostics rather than require the existing algebra-fraction lectures; those Higher algebra topics exceed the mathematics needed for most Physics tasks. Link to the simple rearrangement lecture only when useful.

Suggested main route: Energy → Electricity → Particle model → Atomic physics → Forces and motion → Waves → Magnetism → Space (separate only). For earlier motion exploration, EN-U1/2 → FM-U1/2/3/4 can run before Electricity; postpone FM-U6 until PM-01/05. Teach WA-08 before AT-03 for EM radiation vocabulary, and AT-01/03 before WA-09 for nuclear emission origin; these short cross-area prerequisites prevent a strict area-only sequence. EL-10 uses AT-01; SP-02 uses force/velocity, SP-03 uses fusion, MG-U3 uses AC and induction. In production, these are explicit prerequisite links, not circular whole-area locks.

Four learner routes: Combined Foundation, Combined Higher, separate Physics Foundation, separate Physics Higher. H-only tasks must not be compulsory in Foundation exit/assessment. P-only units must not appear as missing Combined requirements. Mixed lectures have separately tagged objectives, narration, game interactions and assessment items. The website/content catalogue should display the selected board provisionally, qualification, tier and planned status before lesson launch.

Production constraints applying to every lecture:

- Use an educational physics model with SI parameters as the measurement authority. Roblox positions, default gravity, collision impulses, friction, particle effects, frame rate, audio pitch and lighting are presentation/control inputs, not automatically valid laboratory readings. Map metres/seconds explicitly and independently verify equation/model outputs before release.
- Specify system boundaries and account for total energy; distinguish stores, pathways, charge, current and power. Explicitly label ideal/closed/lossless models and compare with realistic losses. Never promise exact empirical conclusions from a perfect deterministic simulation.
- Generate noisy measurements only through documented models; label synthetic data. A repeated deterministic value is not empirical evidence of experimental repeatability. Teach resolution, uncertainty and bias through varied realistic datasets, including method errors and anomalous readings with causes.
- Make graphs switchable between data table, clear labelled axes and textual descriptions. Show numeric values and units; colour is supplementary. Caption narration, provide keyboard/touch equivalents, pause/replay controls and alternatives to timing-sensitive/reflex tasks. Actual sensory response is not inferred from network latency or audio hardware.
- Store prediction, chosen variables, raw readings, units, working, graph, reasoning, hints and exit evidence. Award progress for physics decisions, not platforming dexterity. Complete examples/rubrics need educator review before gameplay production.
- Each practical link below means virtual preparation, method/data practice or revision. It does **not** fulfil the required hands-on school activities. Schools/centres remain responsible for apparatus use, risk assessment, contemporary records and their practical statement.

The Energy proposal is retained as **four units/twelve lectures**: 3 stores/transfers/conservation + 4 GPE/KE/elastic/work-and-power + 3 SHC/insulation/efficiency + 2 resources/community. “Work and power” is one lecture with two linked concepts. Elasticity is deepened in FM-05; internal energy/latent heat in PM-U2; electrical energy in EL-08; radiation in WA-11/14. These extensions prevent gaps without conflating energy stores with transfer mechanisms. If pilot duration requires splitting EN-07, retain EN-07 as the parent identifier and create EN-07A/B subparts rather than renumber downstream references.

<a id="course-map"></a>
## 5. Course map and coverage matrix

The following sections form a production catalogue. Every lecture card includes scope, references, objectives, prerequisites, equations/units, lecturer actions, game task, practice, exit evidence, misconceptions, proposed ratings and practical links. Unit assessments and capstones follow the catalogue. Reference ranges indicate every subsection in that inclusive range; the leaf matrix below resolves the main AQA subsections individually.

| Area | Units | Lectures | AQA broad content | DfE printed pages: separate / Combined |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|
| [Energy](#energy) | 4 | 12 | 4.1 / 6.1 | 34–35 / 29–30 |
| [Forces and motion](#forces-and-motion) | 6 | 18 | 4.5 / 6.5 | 35–37 / 30–32 |
| [Electricity](#electricity) | 4 | 10 | 4.2 / 6.2 | 39–41 / 33–34 |
| [Particle model of matter](#particle-model-of-matter) | 3 | 7 | 4.3 / 6.3 | 42–43 / 35 |
| [Waves](#waves) | 4 | 14 | 4.6 / 6.6 | 37–39 / 32–33 |
| [Magnetism and electromagnetism](#magnetism-and-electromagnetism) | 3 | 9 | 4.7 / 6.7 | 41–42 / 34–35 |
| [Atomic physics](#atomic-physics) | 3 | 9 | 4.4 / 6.4 | 43–44 / 35–36 |
| [Space physics](#space-physics) | 3 | 5 | 4.8 / — | 44–45 / Not included |

### Exact subsection coverage ledger

Every row is **planned**, not delivery-verified. Section numbers are exact AQA subsection references. C/P/H details must be read from the linked cards: several source sections contain a mixture of all-tier and H-only sentences or separate-only additions. `4.9 / 6.8` cross-cutting key ideas are audited across all capstones.

| Physics 8463 subsection | Trilogy 8464 counterpart | Proposed lecture IDs | Planned scope / audit note |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4.1.1.1 | 6.1.1.1 | [EN-01](#en-01), [EN-02](#en-02) | C |
| 4.1.1.2 | 6.1.1.2 | [EN-04](#en-04), [EN-05](#en-05), [EN-06](#en-06) | C |
| 4.1.1.3 | 6.1.1.3 | [EN-08](#en-08) | C |
| 4.1.1.4 | 6.1.1.4 | [EN-07](#en-07), [EN-12](#en-12) | C; C + H extension |
| 4.1.2.1 | 6.1.2.1 | [EN-02](#en-02), [EN-03](#en-03) | C |
| 4.1.2.2 | 6.1.2.2 | [EN-10](#en-10), [EN-12](#en-12) | C + H extension |
| 4.1.3 | 6.1.3 | [EN-11](#en-11), [EN-12](#en-12) | C; C + H extension |
| 4.2.1.1 | 6.2.1.1 | [EL-01](#el-01) | C |
| 4.2.1.2 | 6.2.1.2 | [EL-01](#el-01) | C |
| 4.2.1.3 | 6.2.1.3 | [EL-02](#el-02) | C |
| 4.2.1.4 | 6.2.1.4 | [EL-04](#el-04) | C |
| 4.2.2 | 6.2.2 | [EL-05](#el-05), [EL-06](#el-06) | C |
| 4.2.3.1 | 6.2.3.1 | [EL-07](#el-07) | C |
| 4.2.3.2 | 6.2.3.2 | [EL-07](#el-07) | C |
| 4.2.4.1 | 6.2.4.1 | [EL-08](#el-08) | C |
| 4.2.4.2 | 6.2.4.2 | [EL-08](#el-08) | C |
| 4.2.4.3 | 6.2.4.3 | [EL-09](#el-09) | C |
| 4.2.5.1 | — | [EL-10](#el-10) | P |
| 4.2.5.2 | — | [EL-10](#el-10) | P |
| 4.3.1.1 | 6.3.1.1 | [PM-01](#pm-01) | C |
| 4.3.1.2 | 6.3.1.2 | [PM-04](#pm-04) | C |
| 4.3.2.1 | 6.3.2.1 | [PM-03](#pm-03) | C |
| 4.3.2.2 | 6.3.2.2 | [EN-08](#en-08), [PM-03](#pm-03) | C |
| 4.3.2.3 | 6.3.2.3 | [PM-04](#pm-04) | C |
| 4.3.3.1 | 6.3.3.1 | [PM-05](#pm-05) | C |
| 4.3.3.2 | — | [PM-06](#pm-06) | P |
| 4.3.3.3 | — | [PM-07](#pm-07) | P-H |
| 4.4.1.1 | 6.4.1.1 | [AT-01](#at-01) | C |
| 4.4.1.2 | 6.4.1.2 | [AT-01](#at-01) | C |
| 4.4.1.3 | 6.4.1.3 | [AT-02](#at-02) | C |
| 4.4.2.1 | 6.4.2.1 | [AT-03](#at-03) | C |
| 4.4.2.2 | 6.4.2.2 | [AT-04](#at-04) | C |
| 4.4.2.3 | 6.4.2.3 | [AT-05](#at-05) | C + H net-decline calculations |
| 4.4.2.4 | 6.4.2.4 | [AT-06](#at-06) | C |
| 4.4.3.1 | — | [AT-07](#at-07) | P |
| 4.4.3.2 | — | [AT-07](#at-07) | P |
| 4.4.3.3 | — | [AT-07](#at-07) | P |
| 4.4.4.1 | — | [AT-08](#at-08) | P |
| 4.4.4.2 | — | [AT-09](#at-09) | P |
| 4.5.1.1 | 6.5.1.1 | [FM-01](#fm-01) | C |
| 4.5.1.2 | 6.5.1.2 | [FM-01](#fm-01) | C |
| 4.5.1.3 | 6.5.1.3 | [FM-02](#fm-02) | C |
| 4.5.1.4 | 6.5.1.4 | [FM-03](#fm-03), [FM-04](#fm-04) | C; C-H |
| 4.5.2 | 6.5.2 | [EN-07](#en-07), [FM-06](#fm-06) | C |
| 4.5.3 | 6.5.3 | [EN-06](#en-06), [FM-05](#fm-05) | C |
| 4.5.4 | — | [FM-16](#fm-16) | P |
| 4.5.5.1.1 | — | [FM-17](#fm-17) | P |
| 4.5.5.1.2 | — | [FM-18](#fm-18) | P-H |
| 4.5.5.2 | — | [FM-17](#fm-17) | P |
| 4.5.6.1.1 | 6.5.4.1.1 | [FM-07](#fm-07) | C + H extension |
| 4.5.6.1.2 | 6.5.4.1.2 | [FM-07](#fm-07) | C + H extension |
| 4.5.6.1.3 | 6.5.4.1.3 | [FM-07](#fm-07) | C + H extension |
| 4.5.6.1.4 | 6.5.4.1.4 | [FM-08](#fm-08) | C + H extension |
| 4.5.6.1.5 | 6.5.4.1.5 | [FM-09](#fm-09), [FM-10](#fm-10) | C + H extension; C + P extension; uniform-acceleration equation both tiers; graph areas H, detailed terminal traces P. |
| 4.5.6.2.1 | 6.5.4.2.1 | [FM-11](#fm-11) | C + H vocabulary |
| 4.5.6.2.2 | 6.5.4.2.2 | [FM-12](#fm-12) | C + H extension |
| 4.5.6.2.3 | 6.5.4.2.3 | [FM-11](#fm-11) | C + H vocabulary |
| 4.5.6.3.1 | 6.5.4.3.1 | [FM-13](#fm-13) | C + H extension + P stopping graphs |
| 4.5.6.3.2 | 6.5.4.3.2 | [FM-13](#fm-13) | C + H extension + P stopping graphs |
| 4.5.6.3.3 | 6.5.4.3.3 | [FM-13](#fm-13) | C + H extension + P stopping graphs |
| 4.5.6.3.4 | 6.5.4.3.4 | [FM-13](#fm-13) | C + H extension + P stopping graphs |
| 4.5.7.1 | 6.5.5.1 | [FM-14](#fm-14) | C-H + P-H calculations |
| 4.5.7.2 | 6.5.5.2 | [FM-14](#fm-14) | C-H + P-H calculations; conservation explanation shared H, collision-event calculations P-H. |
| 4.5.7.3 | — | [FM-15](#fm-15) | P-H |
| 4.6.1.1 | 6.6.1.1 | [WA-01](#wa-01) | C |
| 4.6.1.2 | 6.6.1.2 | [WA-02](#wa-02), [WA-06](#wa-06) | C; P + P-H hearing; sound-medium relation separate-only within otherwise shared section. |
| 4.6.1.3 | — | [WA-04](#wa-04) | P |
| 4.6.1.4 | — | [WA-06](#wa-06) | P + P-H hearing |
| 4.6.1.5 | — | [WA-07](#wa-07) | P-H |
| 4.6.2.1 | 6.6.2.1 | [WA-08](#wa-08) | C |
| 4.6.2.2 | 6.6.2.2 | [WA-10](#wa-10) | C-H |
| 4.6.2.3 | 6.6.2.3 | [WA-09](#wa-09), [WA-10](#wa-10) | C + H suitability explanations; C-H |
| 4.6.2.4 | 6.6.2.4 | [WA-09](#wa-09) | C + H suitability explanations |
| 4.6.2.5 | — | [WA-12](#wa-12) | P |
| 4.6.2.6 | — | [WA-13](#wa-13) | P |
| 4.6.3.1 | — | [WA-14](#wa-14) | P + P-H balance |
| 4.6.3.2 | — | [WA-14](#wa-14) | P + P-H balance |
| 4.7.1.1 | 6.7.1.1 | [MG-01](#mg-01) | C |
| 4.7.1.2 | 6.7.1.2 | [MG-02](#mg-02) | C |
| 4.7.2.1 | 6.7.2.1 | [MG-03](#mg-03) | C + P devices; electromagnetic-device interpretation separate-only. |
| 4.7.2.2 | 6.7.2.2 | [MG-04](#mg-04) | C-H |
| 4.7.2.3 | 6.7.2.3 | [MG-05](#mg-05) | C-H |
| 4.7.2.4 | — | [MG-06](#mg-06) | P-H |
| 4.7.3.1 | — | [MG-07](#mg-07) | P-H |
| 4.7.3.2 | — | [MG-08](#mg-08) | P-H |
| 4.7.3.3 | — | [MG-08](#mg-08) | P-H |
| 4.7.3.4 | — | [MG-09](#mg-09) | P-H |
| 4.8.1.1 | — | [SP-01](#sp-01), [SP-03](#sp-03) | P |
| 4.8.1.2 | — | [SP-03](#sp-03), [SP-04](#sp-04) | P |
| 4.8.1.3 | — | [SP-01](#sp-01), [SP-02](#sp-02) | P; P + P-H explanations |
| 4.8.2 | — | [SP-05](#sp-05) | P |
| 4.9 | 6.8 | All area capstones | Models, causation, fields, differences driving change, proportionality and mathematical laws. |

<a id="energy"></a>
## 6. AREA: Energy

<a id="en-u1"></a>
### UNIT EN-U1: Energy stores and transfers

**Contains:** [EN-01 — Where energy is stored](#en-01); [EN-02 — Transfer pathways](#en-02); [EN-03 — Conservation and dissipation](#en-03).

**Unit assessment:** [EN-U1 assessment](#assessment-en-u1); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-en).

<a id="en-01"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-01: Where energy is stored

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.1.1 / 6.1.1.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS1.2,4.1 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Identify the stores that change in five situations; define a system and justify its boundary.
- **Prerequisites:** Preflight P0
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Chemical, kinetic, thermal/internal, gravitational, elastic, magnetic, electrostatic and nuclear stores; energy E in J. No new equation.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Predict which stores change when a weight rises, cart moves, spring stretches or battery powers a heater; reveal before/after diagrams.
- **Learner game exercise:** Inspect weights, carts, springs and batteries; place store labels on the relevant object or interacting system.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain a kettle and upward-thrown ball with before/after store diagrams.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct four of five store assignments and state a defensible system boundary. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Electricity, light and sound are not energy stores; energy is not a material fluid.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 1; 20–25 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional low-risk demonstrations; not an RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-02"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-02: Transfer pathways

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.1.1,4.1.2.1 / 6.1.1.1,6.1.2.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS1.2,3.6,4.1 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Distinguish storage from transfer; trace two complete transfers through a device.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Mechanical work, electrical work, heating and radiation pathways; J. Sound can transfer energy by waves.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Show a lift, lamp and heater; add arrows only while transfer occurs; explain heating as transfer caused by temperature difference.
- **Learner game exercise:** Connect labelled arrows between stores through a lift, lamp and heater; include surroundings.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Write two short causal explanations and identify where the battery chemical store decreases.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two accurate transfer chains with both endpoints and a valid pathway. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** A lamp does not store light energy; energy transfer is not charge transfer.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 1; 20–25 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional battery lamp/heater observation; safe school equipment. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-03"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-03: Conservation and dissipation

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.2.1 / 6.1.2.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS1.2,3.2,3.6; MS1c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Account for total energy in a closed system; explain dissipation and lubrication.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-02
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Energy balance in J; E_before = E_after for the specified closed system; dissipated energy remains stored less usefully.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Predict a frictionless/frictional ramp comparison; reveal cart plus track plus surroundings accounting.
- **Learner game exercise:** Run carts on selectable surfaces; complete a 100 J ledger for kinetic, thermal and other transfers.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Repair an incomplete Sankey-style diagram; explain the effect of lubrication.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Ledger totals balance and explanation names the surroundings rather than destroying energy. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Wasted energy disappears; a stopped cart has no energy; conservation guarantees useful recovery.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional ramp comparison; not an RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-u2"></a>
### UNIT EN-U2: Measuring energy and power

**Contains:** [EN-04 — Gravitational potential energy](#en-04); [EN-05 — Kinetic energy](#en-05); [EN-06 — Elastic energy](#en-06); [EN-07 — Work and power](#en-07).

**Unit assessment:** [EN-U2 assessment](#assessment-en-u2); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-en).

<a id="en-04"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-04: Gravitational potential energy

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.1.2 / 6.1.1.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS4.3–4.6; MS1c,3b,3c,4c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate changes in GPE; predict proportional effects of mass and vertical height.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-03; P0 mass/units
- **Concepts, equations and units:** ΔE_p = mgΔh; E in J, m in kg, g in N/kg, vertical h in m; g supplied.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Lift equal and unequal masses on two routes ending at the same height; compare the energy changes.
- **Learner game exercise:** Set load mass and lift height to deliver a target GPE gain; choose a reference level.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Solve three conversions/rearrangements; graph E_p against h at fixed m and g.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** At least two of three calculations correct with units and use vertical height. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** GPE belongs only to the object; ramp length replaces vertical height; g is mass.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional ramp/lifting energy investigation, AT1. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-05"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-05: Kinetic energy

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.1.2 / 6.1.1.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS1.2,3.5; MS3b,3c,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate KE and infer square-law speed effects; explain energy changes in acceleration and impact.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-04; P0 squares
- **Concepts, equations and units:** E_k = ½mv²; J, kg, m/s.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare carts at v and 2v with equal mass; measure model speed and reveal energies.
- **Learner game exercise:** Tune mass and speed to a target energy; stop the cart in an absorber and account for the transfer.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three KE questions, one solving for speed; compare E_k–v and E_k–v² plots.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two numerical answers correct and doubling speed identified as fourfold KE. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Doubling speed doubles KE; an impact destroys energy.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional cart/light-gate data, AT1,3. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-06"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-06: Elastic energy

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.1.2,4.5.3 / 6.1.1.2,6.5.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS1.2,4.5; MS3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate elastic energy within the proportional range; distinguish extension from total spring length.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-05; P0 squares
- **Concepts, equations and units:** E_e = ½ke²; J; k in N/m, e in m. Equation conditional on proportional behaviour.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Stretch/compress springs with different stiffness; mark original length and linear limit.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose k and extension to store a safe target energy; reject model settings beyond the stated validity range.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Calculate three energies and predict the effect of doubling extension; connect to force data later in FM-05.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two calculations correct, extension measured correctly and validity condition stated. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Use total length; all springs obey the formula for every extension.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Preparation bridge to RP-P6/RP-C18 in FM-05; not completion here. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-07"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-07: Work and power

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.1.4,4.5.2 / 6.1.1.4,6.5.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS4.2–4.6; MS3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate mechanical work and power; compare machines doing equal work in different times.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-04–06
- **Concepts, equations and units:** W_work = Fs along force direction; P=E/t=W_work/t; J, N, m, s, W; 1 W=1 J/s.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Two machines lift the same load; predict which is more powerful before timing them.
- **Learner game exercise:** Configure a lifting machine to meet energy and time targets; maintain a ledger including friction.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three work/power questions, including a rearrangement; explain why holding a stationary load does no mechanical work on it.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two calculations with units and a correct equal-work/different-time comparison. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Power means total energy; weight W and work W have the same meaning; effort without displacement is work on the load.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional load-lifting measurements, AT1,2,5. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-u3"></a>
### UNIT EN-U3: Heating and efficiency

**Contains:** [EN-08 — Specific heat capacity](#en-08); [EN-09 — Insulation and cooling](#en-09); [EN-10 — Efficiency](#en-10).

**Unit assessment:** [EN-U3 assessment](#assessment-en-u3); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-en).

<a id="en-08"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-08: Specific heat capacity

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.1.3,4.3.2.2 / 6.1.1.3,6.3.2.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS2.1–2.7,3.1–3.8; MS2a,2b,3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate thermal energy changes; design and evaluate a method for estimating c.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-07
- **Concepts, equations and units:** ΔE=mcΔθ; J, kg, c in J/(kg °C), Δθ in °C; E_input=Pt for heater input, with possible losses.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Heat equal masses with equal model input; show temperature traces, sensor resolution and heat loss.
- **Learner game exercise:** Select heater, balance, thermometer and timer; collect repeated datasets and estimate c.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Calculate c; plot temperature rise against supplied energy; identify a systematic overestimate from heat loss.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct c with units plus one control variable and one justified method improvement. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Same temperature implies same internal energy; all electrical input heats the sample.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P1/RP-C14 preparation and analysis; AT1,5. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-09"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-09: Insulation and cooling

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + P practical. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.2.1;8.2.2 / 6.1.2.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS2.2,2.6,2.7,3.5,3.7; MS4a,4c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain how conductivity and wall thickness affect cooling; compare insulators using controlled measurements.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-08
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Conduction and convection qualitatively; temperature °C, time s; cooling rate from data, no conductivity formula required.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Cool equal model buildings; change wall thickness or material one variable at a time.
- **Learner game exercise:** Design a fair cooling comparison; select sensor positions, repeats and a fixed comparison interval.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Plot cooling curves; compare like initial temperatures; distinguish lower final temperature from higher cooling rate.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Valid fair-test plan, labelled graph and conclusion citing two measurements. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Insulation creates heat or stops all transfers; thicker walls always eliminate losses.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P2 only: thermal-insulation investigation. Shared theory; no corresponding Trilogy RP. AT1,5. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-10"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-10: Efficiency

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H extension. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.2.2 / 6.1.2.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS1.4,3.6; MS1c,3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate efficiency as fraction or percentage; H: justify a change increasing intended useful transfer.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-03,EN-07–09
- **Concepts, equations and units:** η=E_useful/E_input=P_useful/P_input; dimensionless or %; system boundary and useful purpose specified.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Measure useful lift output and input; separate dissipated energy from measurement discrepancy.
- **Learner game exercise:** Compare machines for one declared purpose; H: choose lubrication/insulation improvements and predict consequences.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Calculate missing input/output and efficiency; explain why a heater can be useful despite thermal transfer.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two ratios correct and output never exceeds input in the stated closed accounting; H justification passes. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Efficiency equals power; thermal energy is always wasted; a percentage greater than 100 is plausible here.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2 (H 3); 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional efficiency investigation; revisits RP-P1/P2 data, not a new RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-u4"></a>
### UNIT EN-U4: Energy resources

**Contains:** [EN-11 — Comparing energy resources](#en-11); [EN-12 — Powering a community](#en-12).

**Unit assessment:** [EN-U4 assessment](#assessment-en-u4); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-en).

<a id="en-11"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-11: Comparing energy resources

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.3 / 6.1.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS1.3–1.6,3.5; MS1c,2c,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Classify all listed resources; compare reliability, uses and environmental impacts; interpret trends.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-10
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Coal/oil/gas, nuclear, biofuel, wind, hydro, geothermal, tidal, solar and wave; transport, heating and electricity uses. J, kWh as labelled context.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Show dated or explicitly fictional supply profiles; explain renewable replenishment and evidence versus policy choice.
- **Learner game exercise:** Sort resource cards then choose suitable supplies for transport, heating and an electricity demand curve.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Interpret trend bars; compare two resources in a four-point explanation using supplied evidence.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** All resource groups recognised and comparison covers reliability plus environmental impact without unsupported absolutes. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Renewable means impact-free; nuclear fuel is renewable; resources equal stores; detailed power-station engineering is required here.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; source/data appraisal. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="en-12"></a>
#### LECTURE EN-12: Powering a community

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H extension. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.1.1.4,4.1.2.2,4.1.3 / 6.1.1.4,6.1.2.2,6.1.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.29–30. Skills: WS1.3,1.4,3.6–3.8; MS1c,3c,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Justify an energy mix against demand and constraints; account for transfers, power and efficiency in one system.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-01–11
- **Concepts, equations and units:** P=E/t and η ratios; J, W, s; kWh conversion provided; resource data labelled fictional scenario.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Model a decision with competing cost, reliability and environmental aims; identify which conclusions are scientific.
- **Learner game exercise:** Build a community plan for winter and summer; test a low-wind day and revise with evidence.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Write a recommendation with two calculations, a demand graph and a limitation; H: justify efficiency upgrade.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Meet supplied demand in both scenarios, balance energy accounting and defend one trade-off using data. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** A single best resource exists for every community; money is a physical unit of energy.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 40–45 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Area capstone; practical-method critique drawn from EN-08/09. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.


<a id="forces-and-motion"></a>
## 7. AREA: Forces and motion

<a id="fm-u1"></a>
### UNIT FM-U1: Interactions and resultants

**Contains:** [FM-01 — Interactions, scalars and vectors](#fm-01); [FM-02 — Mass, weight and gravity](#fm-02); [FM-03 — Resultants on a line](#fm-03); [FM-04 — Free-body diagrams and vector resolution](#fm-04).

**Unit assessment:** [FM-U1 assessment](#assessment-fm-u1); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-fm).

<a id="fm-01"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-01: Interactions, scalars and vectors

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.1.1–4.5.1.2 / 6.5.1.1–6.5.1.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.2,4.1; MS5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Classify quantities and forces; identify both objects in an interaction.
- **Prerequisites:** P0; EN-02 helpful
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Scalar magnitude; vector magnitude/direction; force N; contact/non-contact forces.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Show rope, cart, magnet and Earth interactions; draw scaled arrows without implying motion direction.
- **Learner game exercise:** Annotate forces on a cart in three settings and match interaction partners.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain friction, normal force, tension, gravity, electrostatics and magnetism.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Five of six classifications correct and two valid interaction pairs. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Forces require contact; force arrows show velocity; equal opposite forces always act on one object.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 1; 20–25 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional force/magnet observations, AT2. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-02"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-02: Mass, weight and gravity

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.1.3 / 6.5.1.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS4.2,4.3; MS3a,3b,3c,4d (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate weight with supplied g; measure it using a newtonmeter; locate a model centre of mass.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-01,EN-04
- **Concepts, equations and units:** W_weight=mg; weight N, mass kg, g N/kg; W_weight distinct from work.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare the same mass on Earth and a different supplied gravitational field; calibrate the balance scale.
- **Learner game exercise:** Carry a fixed-mass cargo between model worlds and choose the appropriate measuring instrument.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three weight problems; graph weight against mass and interpret the gradient.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two correct numerical answers and explicit mass/weight distinction. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Mass changes when g changes; weight is measured in kilograms.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional newtonmeter measurement, AT1,2. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-03"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-03: Resultants on a line

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.1.4 / 6.5.1.4`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.2; MS1c,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate a signed resultant; identify balanced forces on one object.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Force N; choose a positive direction; add/subtract collinear vectors.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Predict a tug/cart outcome from force readings; demonstrate zero and nonzero resultants.
- **Learner game exercise:** Set opposite thrusters to achieve target net forces while retaining individual arrows.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Four signed-resultant problems and one explanation of zero resultant.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Three of four resultants correct including direction; balanced forces distinguished from absent forces. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Zero resultant means no forces; largest force alone decides the resultant.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional force board/cart, AT2. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-04"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-04: Free-body diagrams and vector resolution

- **Scope and curriculum:** C-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.1.4 / 6.5.1.4`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.2; MS4a,5a,5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Draw free-body diagrams; find angled resultants and components by scale drawing.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-03; P0 scale diagrams
- **Concepts, equations and units:** N; vector scale, perpendicular components, equilibrium; no trigonometric calculation required.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Resolve a diagonal tow force with a scale diagram; isolate one object before drawing forces.
- **Learner game exercise:** Align ropes for an equilibrium cargo platform; construct the vector polygon on a grid.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Two scale-diagram tasks giving magnitude and direction; explain component equivalence.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct diagram convention and both answers within declared drawing tolerance. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Components are extra forces; use sine/cosine as a required GCSE method; third-law pairs belong on one free-body diagram.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional force-table preparation; not an RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-u2"></a>
### UNIT FM-U2: Work and elasticity

**Contains:** [FM-05 — Elasticity and the spring investigation](#fm-05); [FM-06 — Work against friction](#fm-06).

**Unit assessment:** [FM-U2 assessment](#assessment-fm-u2); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-fm).

<a id="fm-05"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-05: Elasticity and the spring investigation

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.3 / 6.5.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS2.2–2.7,3.5,3.7; MS3c,4c,4d (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Use force–extension data to estimate k; distinguish elastic/inelastic deformation and the proportionality limit.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-06,FM-02
- **Concepts, equations and units:** F=ke; N, N/m, m; E_e=½ke² in proportional range; extension=loaded−original length.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Load/unload a spring; demonstrate two forces needed to distort a stationary object and nonlinear behaviour.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose increments and repeats, collect extension data, protect the eye-line and identify a model limit.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Plot F against e, calculate gradient k and stored energy for a valid data point.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct k with units, valid range marked and justified control/improvement. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** One force alone distorts a stationary spring; elastic limit and proportionality limit necessarily coincide.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P6/RP-C18; AT1,2; hands-on required at school. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-06"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-06: Work against friction

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.2 / 6.5.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS3.6,4.5; MS3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate work along the force direction; link frictional work to thermal changes.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-07,FM-03
- **Concepts, equations and units:** W_work=Fs; J=N m; F in N, s in m; constant force along displacement.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Pull a crate at steady speed; compare force and thermal-energy ledgers on two surfaces.
- **Learner game exercise:** Move a crate a fixed distance using a force meter; tune lubrication and reconcile the energy difference.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three work calculations and an explanation of steady-speed energy transfer.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two calculations correct and thermal destination named; distinguish balanced forces from zero transfer. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Steady speed means no work done by the pulling force; friction destroys energy.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional friction/work study, AT2,5. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-u3"></a>
### UNIT FM-U3: Describing motion

**Contains:** [FM-07 — Distance, displacement, speed and velocity](#fm-07); [FM-08 — Distance–time graphs](#fm-08); [FM-09 — Acceleration and velocity–time graphs](#fm-09); [FM-10 — Free fall and terminal velocity](#fm-10).

**Unit assessment:** [FM-U3 assessment](#assessment-fm-u3); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-fm).

<a id="fm-07"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-07: Distance, displacement, speed and velocity

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H extension. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.6.1.1–4.5.6.1.3 / 6.5.4.1.1–6.5.4.1.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS2.6,4.5; MS1c,2f,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate average speed and displacement; distinguish velocity; H: explain constant-speed circular velocity change.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-01; P0 rates
- **Concepts, equations and units:** s=vt at constant speed; average speed=total distance/time; m, s, m/s; typical walking 1.5, running 3, cycling 6, sound about 330 m/s.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Walk a loop and straight route; use clocks and positions; discuss varied wind/transport speeds.
- **Learner game exercise:** Plan a delivery route, predict odometer and displacement arrow, then measure and compare.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three rates with unit conversions; H: label velocities at four circle positions.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two calculations correct and closed-loop zero displacement distinguished from distance. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Average speed is average of arbitrary speed readings; speed and velocity are interchangeable.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional distance/time measurements, AT1,3. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-08"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-08: Distance–time graphs

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H extension. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.6.1.4 / 6.5.4.1.4`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS3.1,3.2; MS4a–4e (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Translate motion into a distance–time graph; calculate straight-line gradients; H: estimate instantaneous speed using a tangent.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-07
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Gradient=Δdistance/Δtime in m/s; axes m and s; tangent only H.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Predict graph segments for rest and changing speed; replay position data against the graph.
- **Learner game exercise:** Drive a cart to match three graph segments; H: place a tangent on a curve.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Plot measurements, find two gradients and explain a horizontal section.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Labelled graph and two correct gradients; H tangent uses a sensible large triangle. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Graph depicts the physical hill; steeper means greater acceleration on every graph; distance graph decreases on return.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional motion measurements, AT1,3. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-09"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-09: Acceleration and velocity–time graphs

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H extension. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.6.1.5 / 6.5.4.1.5`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS3.3; MS3b,3c,4a–4f (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate acceleration and interpret velocity–time gradients; H: obtain displacement from signed areas.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-08
- **Concepts, equations and units:** a=Δv/t; m/s²; v²−u²=2as only uniform acceleration, all-tier content; H area under v–t in m.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare constant velocity, acceleration and braking traces; draw area tiles for H.
- **Learner game exercise:** Program a cart through a target velocity trace; H: count squares/triangles to find displacement.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three acceleration or uniform-acceleration calculations; plot v–t; H area task.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two correct numerical answers and interpretation of gradient; H distinguishes displacement from total distance if negative velocity used. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Horizontal v–t means stationary; v²−u²=2as is H-only; acceleration is measured in m/s.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P7/RP-C19 data preparation; AT3. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-10"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-10: Free fall and terminal velocity

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + P extension. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.6.1.5 / 6.5.4.1.5`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.2,3.3,3.5; MS4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain free fall and terminal speed; P: draw and interpret changing-force/velocity traces.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-09,FM-03
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Near-Earth free-fall a≈9.8 m/s²; weight/drag N; terminal velocity when resultant=0.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Drop an ideal body then a model parachute; label forces as speed changes.
- **Learner game exercise:** Alter parachute area and payload, predict initial acceleration and terminal speed, compare model traces.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain the stages; P: sketch and annotate v–t for parachute opening.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct force balance at terminal speed and distinction between free fall and falling with drag; P trace consistent. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Terminal velocity means stopped; all falling objects have constant acceleration; shared content includes every separate-P graph requirement.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional parachute investigation, AT1,2,3; not an RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-u4"></a>
### UNIT FM-U4: Newton’s laws and stopping

**Contains:** [FM-11 — Newton’s first and third laws](#fm-11); [FM-12 — Newton’s second law: acceleration investigation](#fm-12); [FM-13 — Reaction time and safe stopping](#fm-13).

**Unit assessment:** [FM-U4 assessment](#assessment-fm-u4); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-fm).

<a id="fm-11"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-11: Newton’s first and third laws

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H vocabulary. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.6.2.1,4.5.6.2.3 / 6.5.4.2.1,6.5.4.2.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.2,3.6 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Apply first-law motion rules; identify third-law pairs acting on different objects; H: explain inertia.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-03,FM-07
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Zero resultant → unchanged velocity; interaction forces equal/opposite on different bodies; N.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Predict a low-friction cart continuing after a push; compare book–table interaction with forces on the book.
- **Learner game exercise:** Sort force-pair cards and remove an erroneous arrow from a selected free-body diagram.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain three equilibrium/motion cases including a steady-moving cart.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two accurate cases plus a third-law pair on distinct bodies; H vocabulary used meaningfully. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** A continuing force is required for steady velocity; weight and normal force on a book are a third-law pair.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional cart and force-sensor demonstrations. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-12"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-12: Newton’s second law: acceleration investigation

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H extension. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.6.2.2 / 6.5.4.2.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS2.1–2.7,3.5,3.7; MS3a–3c,4c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Use F=ma; design force and mass comparisons; H: explain inertial mass as F/a.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-09,FM-11
- **Concepts, equations and units:** F=ma; N, kg, m/s²; a∝F at fixed mass, a∝1/m at fixed F; inertial mass H.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Show light gates/trolley/hanging-mass arrangement; include accelerating total mass and friction controls.
- **Learner game exercise:** Plan two investigations varying resultant force or total mass; collect repeated accelerations.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Calculate three values, graph a–F and a–1/m, evaluate friction bias.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two calculations correct plus a controlled plan for both comparisons; H ratio explained. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Use driving force rather than resultant; changing hanging mass without tracking total mass is a fair fixed-mass test.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P7/RP-C19; AT1,2,3. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-13"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-13: Reaction time and safe stopping

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H extension + P stopping graphs. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.6.3.1–4.5.6.3.4 / 6.5.4.3.1–6.5.4.3.4`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.5,2.2,3.4,3.7; MS2b,2c,2f,2h,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Separate thinking/braking distance; explain road, tyres, brakes and human factors; H: estimate deceleration forces.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-09,FM-12,EN-05
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Stopping distance=thinking+braking; thinking distance≈v t_reaction; typical reaction times 0.2–0.9 s; KE and work models; H force estimate.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare identical speeds with different reaction times and surfaces; expose simulated human delay rather than measuring network lag.
- **Learner game exercise:** Test a virtual road safety plan with distraction, tiredness, weather and tyre-condition cards; propose a ruler-drop method.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Summarise reaction-time repeats with mean/mode/median and histogram; plan representative participant sampling; calculate stopping distances. P: interpret speed–stopping-distance graphs for multiple vehicle types and estimate emergency-stop distances for a typical speed range. H: estimate forces.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two correct distances plus two causal factors and one data limitation; H estimate states assumptions. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Wet roads slow reactions; doubling speed only doubles braking distance under a fixed braking-force model.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional teacher-supervised reaction-time study; not an RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-u5"></a>
### UNIT FM-U5: Momentum

**Contains:** [FM-14 — Momentum and closed-system collisions](#fm-14); [FM-15 — Momentum change and protection](#fm-15).

**Unit assessment:** [FM-U5 assessment](#assessment-fm-u5); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-fm).

<a id="fm-14"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-14: Momentum and closed-system collisions

- **Scope and curriculum:** C-H + P-H calculations. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.7.1–4.5.7.2 / 6.5.5.1–6.5.5.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.2,3.5; MS3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate momentum; explain conservation when external resultant is negligible; P-H: calculate collision outcomes.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-07,FM-12
- **Concepts, equations and units:** p=mv; kg m/s; signed total momentum conserved for closed system. Collision-outcome calculations P-H only.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare carts before and after a collision; separately track KE to show it need not be conserved.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose masses and velocities, predict direction and conserved total; P-H solve coupled-cart final speed.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** C-H calculate individual momenta and explain conservation; P-H two event calculations.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct signed momenta and conservation explanation; P-H correct final speed with stated closed-system assumption. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Momentum equals energy; conservation requires equal masses; all collisions conserve KE.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional trolley collision measurements, AT1,2,3. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-15"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-15: Momentum change and protection

- **Scope and curriculum:** P-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.7.3 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.4,1.5,3.6; MS3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate average force from momentum change; explain crumple zones, helmets and airbags.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-14
- **Concepts, equations and units:** F_average=Δp/Δt=mΔv/Δt for fixed mass; N, kg, m/s, s; signed change.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Stop equal-momentum carts with hard and padded barriers; compare impulse time traces.
- **Learner game exercise:** Design a buffer with fixed stopping change; lengthen stopping time and inspect force.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Two average-force calculations and a causal protection explanation, including constraints.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Both calculations within rounding tolerance and explicit same Δp/longer time/smaller average force chain. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Padding reduces initial momentum automatically; the displayed force is necessarily peak force.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 4; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional toy-cart/force-data analysis; no human impact trials. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-u6"></a>
### UNIT FM-U6: Moments and fluids

**Contains:** [FM-16 — Moments, levers and gears](#fm-16); [FM-17 — Fluid and atmospheric pressure](#fm-17); [FM-18 — Liquid depth, upthrust, floating and sinking](#fm-18).

**Unit assessment:** [FM-U6 assessment](#assessment-fm-u6); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-fm).

<a id="fm-16"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-16: Moments, levers and gears

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.4 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.2,1.4; MS3b,3c,5a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate moments and balanced loads; explain levers and gears as transmitting turning effects.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-02,FM-03
- **Concepts, equations and units:** M=Fd_perpendicular; N m; clockwise total=anticlockwise total at rotational equilibrium.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Balance a beam, vary perpendicular distance and compare two gear trains; make clear no energy multiplication.
- **Learner game exercise:** Position weights on a crane arm; select a lever/gear arrangement to meet a torque requirement.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three moment/balance problems and one gears explanation; no advanced torque-speed equation required.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two correct balances, perpendicular lever arm identified and gear transmission explained. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Use distance along a sloping handle; moment measured in J because dimensions match work; gears create energy.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional moments investigation, AT1,2. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-17"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-17: Fluid and atmospheric pressure

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.5.1.1,4.5.5.2 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.2,4.5; MS3b,3c,5c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate normal-force pressure; explain atmospheric-pressure change with altitude.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-02; PM-01,PM-05 before this branch
- **Concepts, equations and units:** p=F/A; Pa=N/m²; F normal in N; A in m²; atmosphere particle model.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare contact areas and pressure gauges in a gas/liquid; ascend a model atmosphere with density labels.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose support-foot areas for a load; match altitude measurements to a particle explanation.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three area-conversion pressure problems and a four-step altitude explanation.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two correct calculations and lower pressure linked to fewer particles/less air above. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Pressure acts only downwards; air has no mass; convert cm² as if it were cm.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional pressure demonstrations, AT1,2; no pressure-vessel handling in game instructions. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="fm-18"></a>
#### LECTURE FM-18: Liquid depth, upthrust, floating and sinking

- **Scope and curriculum:** P-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.5.5.1.2 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–37; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.30–32. Skills: WS1.2,3.6; MS3b,3c,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate liquid pressure changes; explain upthrust and buoyancy using pressure differences.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-17,PM-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** p=hρg for pressure due to liquid column; Pa, m, kg/m³, N/kg; upthrust N; total pressure may include atmosphere.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Place pressure sensors at several depths and on upper/lower faces of a block.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose a vessel and cargo density to float; reconcile upward/downward forces and depth data.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Two pressure-difference calculations and annotated floating/sinking explanations.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Both values correct and upward resultant linked to greater pressure below; floating force balance correct. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Use total pressure as liquid-only contribution; floating requires no weight; larger density always means larger upthrust independent of displaced volume.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 4; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional flotation/pressure-column demonstration. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.


<a id="electricity"></a>
## 8. AREA: Electricity

<a id="el-u1"></a>
### UNIT EL-U1: Charge, circuits and resistance

**Contains:** [EL-01 — Circuit language and charge flow](#el-01); [EL-02 — Potential difference and resistance](#el-02); [EL-03 — Investigating resistance](#el-03); [EL-04 — Component characteristics and I–V investigation](#el-04).

**Unit assessment:** [EL-U1 assessment](#assessment-el-u1); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-el).

<a id="el-01"></a>
#### LECTURE EL-01: Circuit language and charge flow

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.2.1.1–4.2.1.2 / 6.2.1.1–6.2.1.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.39–41; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.33–34. Skills: WS1.2,4.3; MS3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Use standard symbols; calculate charge flow; explain closed-loop current and current conservation at junctions.
- **Prerequisites:** P0; EN-02
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Q=It; Q in C, I in A, t in s; conventional current direction distinguished from electron motion.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Translate real circuit to standard schematic; demonstrate ammeter in series and a broken circuit.
- **Learner game exercise:** Assemble low-voltage circuits from cells/battery, switch, resistor, variable resistor, lamp, diode, LED, fuse and meter cards; inspect thermistor/LDR symbols.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three Q/I/t calculations and a symbol-recognition check.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two calculations correct and all core symbols correctly used in a closed circuit. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Current is used up; charge comes from nowhere when switch closes; current and energy are the same.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional low-voltage circuit construction, AT6,7. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="el-02"></a>
#### LECTURE EL-02: Potential difference and resistance

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.2.1.3 / 6.2.1.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.39–41; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.33–34. Skills: WS2.3,4.2; MS3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Relate current, resistance and p.d.; place a voltmeter correctly and calculate unknowns.
- **Prerequisites:** EL-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** V=IR; V in V, I in A, R in Ω; p.d. energy per charge elaborated in EL-08.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Predict current for different resistors at fixed p.d.; connect voltmeter in parallel.
- **Learner game exercise:** Diagnose wrongly wired meters and choose a resistance giving a target current.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three V/I/R questions and a qualitative comparison.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two calculations correct and both meter connections justified. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Resistance slows charge until it piles up indefinitely; p.d. is measured through a component in series.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Preparation for RP-P3/P4 and RP-C15/C16; AT6,7. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="el-03"></a>
#### LECTURE EL-03: Investigating resistance

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.2.1.3;8.2.3 / 6.2.1.3;10.2.15`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.39–41; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.33–34. Skills: WS2.1–2.7,3.4–3.7; MS2a,2b,3c,4c,4d (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Plan both wire-length resistance and series/parallel resistor comparisons; evaluate heating and measurement limits.
- **Prerequisites:** EL-02
- **Concepts, equations and units:** R=V/I; Ω; wire length m; fixed material, cross-section and temperature; equivalent resistance.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Use a ruler, wire, meters and controlled low current; compare series/parallel fixed resistors.
- **Learner game exercise:** Collect repeated resistance-versus-length readings then test resistor combinations with a checked schematic.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Graph R–length, find gradient/intercept, explain contact/lead resistance and heating bias.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Valid plans for both specified parts, correct R values and one justified improvement for each. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** The practical requires only wire length; low resistance means safe at arbitrary current; repeat readings remove systematic error.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P3/RP-C15, both (a) wire length and (b) series/parallel resistor circuits; AT1,6,7. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="el-04"></a>
#### LECTURE EL-04: Component characteristics and I–V investigation

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.2.1.4 / 6.2.1.4`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.39–41; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.33–34. Skills: WS2.2–2.7,3.5; MS4c,4d,4e (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Compare resistor, lamp and diode I–V characteristics; explain temperature dependence; describe LDR/thermistor responses.
- **Prerequisites:** EL-02,EL-03
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Ohmic resistor at constant temperature; lamp resistance rises with temperature; diode direction; thermistor R falls as temperature rises, LDR R falls as light rises.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Sweep positive/negative p.d. safely in a model; compare three graphs and explain nonlinear lamp heating.
- **Learner game exercise:** Build each circuit; choose p.d. steps and repeats; add separate temperature/light sensor demonstrations.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Plot three I–V graphs, calculate resistance at stated operating points and choose a sensor application.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** All graph types identified, diode direction correct and one heating/control limitation explained. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Lamp obeys constant R; diode has identical resistance in either direction; sensors create charge.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P4/RP-C16: resistor, filament lamp and diode. LDR/thermistor demonstrations supplement the RP. AT6,7. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="el-u2"></a>
### UNIT EL-U2: Circuit networks

**Contains:** [EL-05 — Series circuits](#el-05); [EL-06 — Parallel circuits](#el-06).

**Unit assessment:** [EL-U2 assessment](#assessment-el-u2); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-el).

<a id="el-05"></a>
#### LECTURE EL-05: Series circuits

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.2.2 / 6.2.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.39–41; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.33–34. Skills: WS1.2,3.6; MS3c,3d (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Use equal series current, shared p.d. and summed resistance to solve simple circuits.
- **Prerequisites:** EL-04
- **Concepts, equations and units:** R_total=R1+R2; V_supply=sum component p.d.; V=IR; A,V,Ω.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Add one resistor and predict changed current; measure each p.d. and current.
- **Learner game exercise:** Wire a series lamp/resistor circuit to meet a supplied meter target.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three two-resistor circuit problems and an explanation of removing one lamp.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two correct solutions with consistent current and p.d. accounting. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Each resistor gets full supply p.d.; charge is consumed by first lamp.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P3/RP-C15 series part reinforcement; AT6,7. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="el-06"></a>
#### LECTURE EL-06: Parallel circuits

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.2.2 / 6.2.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.39–41; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.33–34. Skills: WS1.2,1.4; MS3c,3d (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Use equal branch p.d. and total current; explain reduced total resistance as branches are added.
- **Prerequisites:** EL-05
- **Concepts, equations and units:** I_total=sum branch currents; each branch V=V_supply; equivalent R=V/I_total; no reciprocal formula required.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare series and parallel lamps; remove one branch and measure remaining current.
- **Learner game exercise:** Build a two-branch lighting system and diagnose a broken branch from meter data.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Calculate branch and total currents then equivalent resistance; explain domestic circuit advantages.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two correct calculations and correct independent-branch explanation. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Parallel branches share current equally regardless of resistance; adding parallel resistance increases total R.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P3/RP-C15 parallel part; AT6,7. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="el-u3"></a>
### UNIT EL-U3: Domestic supply and electrical energy

**Contains:** [EL-07 — AC, mains and electrical safety](#el-07); [EL-08 — Electrical work, power and appliances](#el-08); [EL-09 — The National Grid](#el-09).

**Unit assessment:** [EL-U3 assessment](#assessment-el-u3); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-el).

<a id="el-07"></a>
#### LECTURE EL-07: AC, mains and electrical safety

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.2.3.1–4.2.3.2 / 6.2.3.1–6.2.3.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.39–41; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.33–34. Skills: WS1.5,3.6,4.1; MS4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Distinguish AC/DC; explain live, neutral, earth and hazard protections in a supplied diagram.
- **Prerequisites:** EL-06
- **Concepts, equations and units:** UK mains about 230 V, 50 Hz AC; brown live, blue neutral, green/yellow earth; earth/neutral about 0 V; fuse and earthing.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Use labelled diagrams and AC traces; show a live conductor can remain dangerous with a switch off.
- **Learner game exercise:** Audit simulated appliances for insulation, correct wiring and earth connection; explain fault-current/fuse sequence.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Compare AC/DC traces and write three causal safety explanations.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Three wires identified and both electric-shock and live-to-earth fault paths accurately explained. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Earth normally carries operating current; neutral can always be touched; a switched-off appliance is necessarily safe.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Diagram-only mains activity; hands-on circuits use approved low voltage, AT7. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="el-08"></a>
#### LECTURE EL-08: Electrical work, power and appliances

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.2.4.1–4.2.4.2 / 6.2.4.1–6.2.4.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.39–41; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.33–34. Skills: WS1.2,4.5; MS1c,3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate appliance energy and power; explain p.d. as work per charge and connect chemical/electrical/thermal transfers.
- **Prerequisites:** EL-02,EN-07,EN-10
- **Concepts, equations and units:** P=VI=I²R; E=Pt=QV; W, V, A, Ω, J, C, s; optional kWh billing context with conversion.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Run two rated heaters for specified times; track charge flow and energy separately.
- **Learner game exercise:** Select appliances and usage durations for an energy budget; calculate useful/wasted transfers.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Four mixed calculations including time conversion; explain battery versus mains source transfers.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Three calculations correct and valid stores/pathways explanation for one appliance. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** kW and kWh interchangeable; more powerful always more energy regardless of time; electron movement is the energy store.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Links heater data to RP-P1/RP-C14; optional low-voltage energy measurement AT5,6. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="el-09"></a>
#### LECTURE EL-09: The National Grid

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.2.4.3 / 6.2.4.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.39–41; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.33–34. Skills: WS1.4,3.6; MS3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain Grid structure and qualitative roles of step-up/down transformers; connect high p.d. to reduced transfer losses.
- **Prerequisites:** EL-08,EN-11
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Grid: cables and transformers; high V enables lower I for same P; cable heating linked to I²R qualitatively; numerical transformer ratios reserved MG-09 P-H.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare model transmission routes for fixed delivered power; distinguish distribution from energy resource.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose transformer locations and transmission p.d.; complete a system transfer map.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Calculate two cable powers using supplied I,R and give a three-link explanation.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct topology and high V → lower I → less heating explanation; no claim transformers create energy. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** High voltage means more power automatically; every transformer topic is Combined Higher content.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; optional safe transformer demonstration by teacher. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="el-u4"></a>
### UNIT EL-U4: Electrostatics

**Contains:** [EL-10 — Static charge and electric fields](#el-10).

**Unit assessment:** [EL-U4 assessment](#assessment-el-u4); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-el).

<a id="el-10"></a>
#### LECTURE EL-10: Static charge and electric fields

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.2.5.1–4.2.5.2 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.39–41; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.33–34. Skills: WS1.2,1.5,3.6; MS5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain charging by electron transfer, sparks and non-contact electric forces; sketch fields.
- **Prerequisites:** EL-01,AT-01 before microscopic explanation
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Positive/negative charge; electrons move between insulating materials; field direction is force on positive test charge; no new equation.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Rub two model insulators; conserve charge; show field weakening with distance and a spark from large p.d.
- **Learner game exercise:** Transfer electron tokens between objects, predict attraction/repulsion, and place test-charge arrows around an isolated charge.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain three charging/spark cases and draw positive/negative radial fields.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Charge conserved, signs correct and two field directions correct. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Friction creates electrons; protons move between rubbed objects; fields are physical lines; charged objects attract only.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional safe static demonstrations; no RP and no learner high-voltage apparatus instructions. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.


<a id="particle-model-of-matter"></a>
## 9. AREA: Particle model of matter

<a id="pm-u1"></a>
### UNIT PM-U1: Density and states

**Contains:** [PM-01 — Density and particle arrangements](#pm-01); [PM-02 — Measuring density: solids and liquids](#pm-02).

**Unit assessment:** [PM-U1 assessment](#assessment-pm-u1); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-pm).

<a id="pm-01"></a>
#### LECTURE PM-01: Density and particle arrangements

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.3.1.1 / 6.3.1.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.42–43; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35. Skills: WS1.2,4.5; MS3b,3c,5c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Calculate density and explain state differences using arrangements/separations without changing particle size.
- **Prerequisites:** P0
- **Concepts, equations and units:** ρ=m/V; kg/m³; mass kg, volume m³; solid/liquid/gas models.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare equal-volume solids and equal-mass objects; reveal annotated particle spacing.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose a material for a target mass/volume and classify three particle diagrams.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three density problems with cm³ conversions and a model limitation explanation.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two correct calculations with units and correct three state diagrams. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Particles expand when material expands; denser always means larger particles; density and mass are identical.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Preparation for RP-P5/RP-C17, AT1. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="pm-02"></a>
#### LECTURE PM-02: Measuring density: solids and liquids

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.3.1.1;8.2.5 / 6.3.1.1;10.2.17`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.42–43; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35. Skills: WS2.3–2.7,3.4,3.7; MS2a,2b,3c,5c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Select methods for regular solids, irregular solids and liquids; evaluate volume/mass errors.
- **Prerequisites:** PM-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** ρ=m/V; cube/cuboid volume from lengths; displacement volume; tare/subtraction for liquid mass; kg/m³ or g/cm³ converted explicitly.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Use balance, ruler and displacement vessel; show meniscus/parallax and trapped air errors.
- **Learner game exercise:** Measure all three sample types virtually; reject unsuitable methods and collect repeats.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three density estimates, uncertainty comparisons and a method improvement.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct methods for every sample type plus two valid densities and one quantified uncertainty estimate. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Liquid density uses container mass; displacement volume is total water volume; repeat readings correct a mis-zeroed balance.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P5/RP-C17; regular/irregular solids and liquids; AT1. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="pm-u2"></a>
### UNIT PM-U2: Internal energy and state changes

**Contains:** [PM-03 — Internal energy, temperature and heating](#pm-03); [PM-04 — Changes of state and latent heat](#pm-04).

**Unit assessment:** [PM-U2 assessment](#assessment-pm-u2); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-pm).

<a id="pm-03"></a>
#### LECTURE PM-03: Internal energy, temperature and heating

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.3.2.1–4.3.2.2 / 6.3.2.1–6.3.2.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.42–43; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35. Skills: WS1.2,3.6; MS3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Distinguish internal energy and temperature; relate heating to kinetic/potential particle energy changes.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-08,PM-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Internal energy=sum particle kinetic and potential energies; ΔE=mcΔθ for temperature change without phase change; J,kg,J/(kg °C),°C.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare samples at equal temperature but different mass; interpret particle animation as a model.
- **Learner game exercise:** Give equal thermal inputs to selectable samples; predict temperature change then annotate particle changes.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Two ΔE calculations and an explanation of equal temperature/different internal energy.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Both calculations correct and internal energy includes both particle contributions. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Temperature measures total energy; heat is contained as a substance; particles get bigger when heated.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P1/RP-C14 conceptual revisit; no additional RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="pm-04"></a>
#### LECTURE PM-04: Changes of state and latent heat

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.3.1.2,4.3.2.3 / 6.3.1.2,6.3.2.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.42–43; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35. Skills: WS1.2,3.5; MS3c,3d,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain reversible state changes and mass conservation; calculate latent energy; interpret heating/cooling plateaux.
- **Prerequisites:** PM-03
- **Concepts, equations and units:** E=mL; J,kg,L in J/kg; latent fusion/vaporisation; constant-temperature phase change at stated pressure.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Heat a fixed mass through melting and boiling; reveal energy input with constant-temperature intervals.
- **Learner game exercise:** Allocate energy to a sample across states; label solid, liquid, gas and mixed-phase intervals.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three latent-heat calculations and a temperature–time graph explanation, including cooling.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two values correct, plateau linked to potential-energy change and mass conserved. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Temperature always rises when heating; particles vanish on evaporation; latent heat means no energy transfer.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional teacher-supervised heating/cooling demonstration; not an RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="pm-u3"></a>
### UNIT PM-U3: Gas motion and pressure

**Contains:** [PM-05 — Gas motion, temperature and pressure](#pm-05); [PM-06 — Gas pressure and volume](#pm-06); [PM-07 — Work done on a gas](#pm-07).

**Unit assessment:** [PM-U3 assessment](#assessment-pm-u3); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-pm).

<a id="pm-05"></a>
#### LECTURE PM-05: Gas motion, temperature and pressure

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.3.3.1 / 6.3.3.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.42–43; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35. Skills: WS1.2,3.5,3.6; MS4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain pressure from random particle collisions; predict pressure rise when fixed-volume gas warms.
- **Prerequisites:** PM-03
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Gas pressure Pa; temperature °C used qualitatively; average kinetic energy rises with temperature; fixed mass/volume conditions.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Warm a sealed fixed-volume model gas; count wall collision impulses with animation slowed and labelled.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose warmer/cooler settings and compare pressure readings; explain constraints of particle representation.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Interpret pressure–temperature data qualitatively and write a collision-based explanation.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Explain higher average speed/more forceful and frequent wall collisions at fixed volume; avoid unsupported proportionality in °C. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Gas pressure is caused by particles pressing without motion; pressure rises because particles expand; p∝temperature in °C.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional teacher-led pressure/temperature demonstration; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="pm-06"></a>
#### LECTURE PM-06: Gas pressure and volume

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.3.3.2 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.42–43; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35. Skills: WS1.2,2.2; MS3b,3c,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Use fixed-mass constant-temperature gas data to calculate pressure/volume changes; explain the inverse relation.
- **Prerequisites:** PM-05
- **Concepts, equations and units:** pV=constant, p1V1=p2V2; Pa,m³; mass and temperature held fixed.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compress a model slowly while heat exchange holds temperature fixed; compare collision frequency.
- **Learner game exercise:** Set syringe volume for a target pressure and select only constant-temperature datasets.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three p/V problems and a p–V graph; optional p–1/V straight line.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two values correct and both validity conditions stated. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** pV remains constant while temperature changes; volume halves so pressure halves.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional teacher-supervised syringe/data investigation; not an RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="pm-07"></a>
#### LECTURE PM-07: Work done on a gas

- **Scope and curriculum:** P-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.3.3.3 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.42–43; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35. Skills: WS1.2,3.6,3.7 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain why rapid compression can heat gas; distinguish this from the constant-temperature pV model.
- **Prerequisites:** PM-06,EN-07
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Mechanical work increases internal energy; J,Pa,°C; no pΔV calculation required.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare slow isothermal and fast model pump strokes; trace transfer pathway and temperature change.
- **Learner game exercise:** Select compression and heat-exchange conditions, predict final temperature direction and justify observed data.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Write a bicycle-pump explanation and critique use of pV=constant across unequal temperatures.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Causal work → internal energy → temperature explanation and correct rejection of isothermal equation in rapid-heating case. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Compression always keeps temperature constant; hotter pump proves energy creation.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional teacher-led bicycle-pump demonstration; not an RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.


<a id="waves"></a>
## 10. AREA: Waves

<a id="wa-u1"></a>
### UNIT WA-U1: Measuring mechanical waves

**Contains:** [WA-01 — Waves transfer energy](#wa-01); [WA-02 — Wave measurements and equations](#wa-02); [WA-03 — Wave-speed investigations](#wa-03).

**Unit assessment:** [WA-U1 assessment](#assessment-wa-u1); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-wa).

<a id="wa-01"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-01: Waves transfer energy

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.1.1 / 6.6.1.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.2,2.2,3.6; MS5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Distinguish transverse/longitudinal waves; use a tracer to show energy propagation without bulk matter transport.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-02; PM-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Oscillation perpendicular/parallel to propagation; compressions/rarefactions; water surface is GCSE transverse approximation.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Predict a floating marker trajectory and a slinky disturbance; contrast marker motion with travelling pattern.
- **Learner game exercise:** Launch pulses through rope, water and air models; track a marked particle and select the direction relationship.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Draw both wave types and explain energy transport with stationary-average marker data.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Both classifications correct and explanation distinguishes oscillating particles from propagation. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Particles travel the whole distance with the wave; all waves need matter; water particles move only vertically in reality.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 1; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P8/RP-C20 preparation; rope/slinky/ripple observation, AT4. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-02"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-02: Wave measurements and equations

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.1.2 / 6.6.1.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS4.2,4.5; MS1c,3b,3c,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Measure amplitude, wavelength, period and frequency; calculate wave speed.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-01; P0 rates
- **Concepts, equations and units:** v=fλ; T=1/f; v m/s, f Hz, λ m, T s; amplitude m; time trace versus spatial trace.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare snapshots and time traces; count cycles over several periods and measure several wavelengths.
- **Learner game exercise:** Tune a wave maker to a target wavelength/speed; choose the correct measurement axes.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Four equation/conversion questions and diagram labels; distinguish wavelength from crest height.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Three calculations correct plus correct amplitude/wavelength labels. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Frequency equals wave speed; wavelength measured from crest to trough; amplitude is peak-to-peak.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P8/RP-C20 preparation; AT1,4. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-03"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-03: Wave-speed investigations

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.1.2;8.2.8 / 6.6.1.2;10.2.20`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS2.3–2.7,3.1,3.5; MS2a,2b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Choose suitable apparatus and methods for ripple-tank and solid waves; explain a method for sound speed in air.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-02
- **Concepts, equations and units:** v=fλ or distance/time; m/s,Hz,m,s; multiple cycles/wavelengths reduce relative measurement error.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Demonstrate ripple tank and vibrating string/solid apparatus plus sound timing/echo or microphone method.
- **Learner game exercise:** Measure frequency/wavelength/speed in both required apparatus types; choose timing separation for sound.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Analyse repeat readings, compare methods and quantify one uncertainty; echo distance requires two-way path.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Both RP apparatus contexts addressed with valid methods/data and a justified sound-speed method. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Only a ripple tank fulfils the RP; frame rate is actual wave frequency; echo travels only one way.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P8/RP-C20: waves in ripple tank AND solid. Sound-speed method is additional specified theory/practical knowledge; AT4. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-u2"></a>
### UNIT WA-U2: Interfaces and sound

**Contains:** [WA-04 — Reflection and material interfaces](#wa-04); [WA-05 — Refraction and wavefronts](#wa-05); [WA-06 — Sound, hearing and transmission](#wa-06); [WA-07 — Ultrasound, sonar and seismic evidence](#wa-07).

**Unit assessment:** [WA-U2 assessment](#assessment-wa-u2); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-wa).

<a id="wa-04"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-04: Reflection and material interfaces

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.1.3 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.2,2.6; MS5a,5c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Draw reflection rays and normal; distinguish reflected, transmitted and absorbed energy.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-01,WA-02
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Angles from normal in degrees; incidence angle=reflection angle; ray and wavefront representations differ.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Send waves to a boundary and compare smooth/rough surfaces; annotate energy partitions.
- **Learner game exercise:** Orient mirrors to send a beam to a receiver; compare reflective and absorbing materials.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Two ray-diagram problems and an interface explanation; record angles in a table.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Both ray constructions within 2° target tolerance and all three outcomes distinguished. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Angles measured from surface; every boundary reflects all incident energy; diffuse reflection breaks reflection law.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P9 reflection part; AT4,8. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-05"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-05: Refraction and wavefronts

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H explanation; P practical. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.2.2;8.2.9 / 6.6.2.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.2,2.6; MS5a,5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Draw refraction rays at a boundary; H: explain bending using speed change and wavefronts.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-02; WA-04 for P
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Ray angles from normal; frequency unchanged across boundary; v=fλ; speed/wavelength change; no Snell-law calculation required.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Predict air-to-glass bending, including normal incidence; H: turn wavefronts as speed changes.
- **Learner game exercise:** Place blocks/prisms and trace beams; H: select a consistent speed/wavelength wavefront model.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Two ray diagrams; H explanation; P compare reflection/refraction measurements from different substances.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct toward/away-normal rays for supplied speed changes; H preserves frequency and explains bending. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** All refraction bends toward normal; frequency changes at boundary; refraction absent from Combined Science.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P9 refraction part only. Shared refraction theory has no equivalent Trilogy optics RP; AT4,8 for P. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-06"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-06: Sound, hearing and transmission

- **Scope and curriculum:** P + P-H hearing. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.1.2,4.6.1.4 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.2,3.6; MS1c,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Relate sound speed, frequency and wavelength across media; H: explain sound-to-solid vibration and hearing limits.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-01–03
- **Concepts, equations and units:** v=fλ; m/s,Hz,m; frequency fixed by source; H normal human hearing about 20 Hz–20 kHz.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Transmit a model tone into another medium; H: show eardrum vibration within a limited response range.
- **Learner game exercise:** Match source-frequency and wavelength cards in two media; H: classify audible/ultrasound tones using numbers, not real loud audio.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Two wavelength comparisons; H explain ear response and why sound needs matter.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Frequency preserved with correct wavelength changes; H correct hearing range and vibration chain. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Pitch always changes between media; humans hear every frequency; animation scale is a real ear motion measurement.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional sound transmission demonstration; AT4,8; no required practical specific to hearing. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-07"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-07: Ultrasound, sonar and seismic evidence

- **Scope and curriculum:** P-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.1.5 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.1,1.2,1.4,3.6; MS3c,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain reflection-based hidden-structure imaging; use P/S-wave evidence for Earth’s structure.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-06
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Round-trip distance=vt/2 as application of speed relation; ultrasound above human hearing; P longitudinal, S transverse; S cannot traverse liquid.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare boundary echoes and seismic paths; separate observation from inference.
- **Learner game exercise:** Locate a hidden flaw or seabed from echo times; choose an Earth model consistent with a supplied seismic dataset.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Two echo-distance calculations and a written P/S evidence argument.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct round-trip factor and inference consistent with both wave types; uncertainty acknowledged. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Ultrasound is electromagnetic; S-waves travel through liquids; images are photographs directly seen inside objects.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 4; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional echo/supplied-data analysis; no medical diagnosis exercise or RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-u3"></a>
### UNIT WA-U3: Electromagnetic waves

**Contains:** [WA-08 — Electromagnetic spectrum](#wa-08); [WA-09 — Applications, hazards and dose evidence](#wa-09); [WA-10 — Radio production, absorption and selective interactions](#wa-10); [WA-11 — Infrared surfaces investigation](#wa-11).

**Unit assessment:** [WA-U3 assessment](#assessment-wa-u3); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-wa).

<a id="wa-08"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-08: Electromagnetic spectrum

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.2.1 / 6.6.2.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.2,4.4; MS1b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Order EM groups by wavelength/frequency; explain energy transfer and common vacuum speed.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-02,EN-02
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Radio, microwave, IR, visible red→violet, UV, X-ray, gamma; transverse; v=fλ; vacuum c≈3×10⁸ m/s supplied for calculation.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Sweep an annotated spectrum and show common vacuum travel time; label visible as a small range.
- **Learner game exercise:** Sort spectrum bands and match source-to-absorber transfer cards; compare waves on the same distance.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three frequency/wavelength calculations with standard form; identify inverse trend.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** All seven bands ordered and two calculations correct. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Gamma travels faster than radio in vacuum; EM waves require air; coloured spectrum labels are actual colours of invisible radiation.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; cross-link WA-11 infrared. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-09"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-09: Applications, hazards and dose evidence

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H suitability explanations. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.2.3–4.6.2.4 / 6.6.2.3–6.6.2.4`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.4,1.5,3.5; MS1c,2c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Match every specified EM group to applications; evaluate supplied exposure data; H: explain suitability.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-08; AT-03 for nuclear link
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Radio broadcast; microwave communications/cooking; IR heaters/cameras; visible fibre optics; UV lamps/tanning; X/gamma imaging/treatment; Sv/mSv supplied units, not recall requirement.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare penetration/absorption in schematic materials and model exposure data; identify gamma nuclear origin.
- **Learner game exercise:** Design a communications/imaging toolkit and reject unsafe exposure choices using provided evidence.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three risk-data questions and two application explanations; H links physical property to use.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** At least one accurate use per band, consistent dose conversion and evidence-based risk comparison. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** All radiation is radioactive; non-ionising means harmless at every dose; dose and activity are the same quantity.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Source-based risk analysis; no learner exposure experiments. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-10"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-10: Radio production, absorption and selective interactions

- **Scope and curriculum:** C-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.2.2–4.6.2.3 / 6.6.2.2–6.6.2.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.2,1.4,3.5; MS4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain oscillating circuits producing radio waves and induced oscillations on reception; compare wavelength-dependent material interactions.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-08,EL-07
- **Concepts, equations and units:** AC frequency Hz; transmitter/receiver frequencies correspond; materials selectively absorb/transmit/reflect/refract; no antenna engineering formulas.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Animate an oscillating circuit and receiving current at the same frequency; show model material response.
- **Learner game exercise:** Tune transmitter/receiver frequency and choose a material route based on supplied response graphs.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain a reception failure and interpret two transmission/absorption curves.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Frequency correspondence correct and explanation uses wavelength-dependent interaction evidence. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Radio waves transport current through empty space; all materials behave identically for every wavelength.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional teacher demonstration/supplied circuit signals; not an RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-11"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-11: Infrared surfaces investigation

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.2.2;8.2.10 / 6.6.2.2;10.2.21`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS2.1–2.7,3.4,3.7; MS2b,2c,4c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Plan comparisons of absorption/emission for different surfaces; control geometry and temperature.
- **Prerequisites:** EN-09,WA-08
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Infrared transfer; temperature °C, time s, detector signal in labelled units; dark matt versus light shiny surfaces; no Stefan–Boltzmann equation.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare model detector readings from equally hot surfaces and warming rates under equal irradiation.
- **Learner game exercise:** Select detector distance, initial temperature, surface finish and repeats; collect both absorption/emission evidence.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Plot results with uncertainty; distinguish temperature readings from direct radiation measurements.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Controlled comparison with labelled data and a conclusion limited to the tested surfaces. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Black surfaces only absorb and never emit; visible colour alone determines every radiation property.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P10/RP-C21; AT1,4. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-u4"></a>
### UNIT WA-U4: Optics and radiation

**Contains:** [WA-12 — Lenses and image formation](#wa-12); [WA-13 — Visible colour, filters and reflection](#wa-13); [WA-14 — Black bodies and radiation balance](#wa-14).

**Unit assessment:** [WA-U4 assessment](#assessment-wa-u4); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-wa).

<a id="wa-12"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-12: Lenses and image formation

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.2.5 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.2; MS3b,3c,5a,5c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Construct convex/concave lens ray diagrams; distinguish real/virtual images; calculate magnification.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-05
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Magnification=image height/object height, no unit; both heights same units; principal focus, focal length m; convex real or virtual, concave virtual.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Move an object through focal positions and show screen capture versus virtual viewing.
- **Learner game exercise:** Position lenses to make a specified image; place principal rays and predict size/orientation before reveal.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three ray-diagram cases and two magnification calculations.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct image type/orientation for two cases and both ratios correct without units. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** All lens images can be caught on a screen; magnification is measured in cm; ray lines are physical tracks.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional lens/magnification investigation, AT4,8; not an additional RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-13"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-13: Visible colour, filters and reflection

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.2.6 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.2,3.6; MS5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain opaque colour and filters through selective absorption/reflection/transmission; distinguish specular/diffuse reflection and transparent/translucent.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-08,WA-04
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Visible wavelength bands; no new equation; source spectrum matters.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Illuminate coloured objects with white and single-colour light; show rough/smooth reflected rays.
- **Learner game exercise:** Select light/filter combinations to reveal a coded object; predict black appearances when available light is absorbed.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain three source–filter–object cases and draw smooth/rough ray patterns.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two colour predictions correct with wavelength explanation and both reflection patterns consistent. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** A red object always looks red; filters add their colour; diffuse rays violate reflection law.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional colour/filter investigation, AT4,8. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="wa-14"></a>
#### LECTURE WA-14: Black bodies and radiation balance

- **Scope and curriculum:** P + P-H balance. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.6.3.1–4.6.3.2 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.37–39; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.32–33. Skills: WS1.2,1.3,3.5; MS4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain emission at all temperatures and temperature-dependent spectrum; H: relate temperature change to absorbed/emitted power, including Earth.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-11,EN-03
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Perfect black body absorbs all incident radiation and is best emitter; spectrum intensity/wavelength vs temperature; H power balance W.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare labelled model spectra; H vary absorption/reflection/emission of Earth–atmosphere model.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose surfaces for a satellite; H adjust incoming/absorbed/emitted power and predict warming/cooling/equilibrium.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Interpret two spectra; H annotate an Earth radiation diagram and identify a model limitation.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct hotter-spectrum comparison; H temperature change consistent with net absorbed power and equilibrium rates equal. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Cold objects do not radiate; constant temperature means no transfer; greenhouse model proves exact future temperature.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3 (H 4); 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** RP-P10 data revisit; black-body theory and H balance extend beyond shared RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.


<a id="magnetism-and-electromagnetism"></a>
## 11. AREA: Magnetism and electromagnetism

<a id="mg-u1"></a>
### UNIT MG-U1: Magnets and current-produced fields

**Contains:** [MG-01 — Permanent and induced magnets](#mg-01); [MG-02 — Mapping magnetic fields](#mg-02); [MG-03 — Current, solenoids and electromagnets](#mg-03).

**Unit assessment:** [MG-U1 assessment](#assessment-mg-u1); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-mg).

<a id="mg-01"></a>
#### LECTURE MG-01: Permanent and induced magnets

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.7.1.1 / 6.7.1.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.41–42; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35. Skills: WS1.2,2.2,3.6 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Predict pole interactions; distinguish permanent and induced magnetism and relevant magnetic materials.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** N/S poles; unlike attract/like repel; induced magnetism attracts; iron,steel,cobalt,nickel; force N qualitatively.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare a permanent magnet with an iron sample in and out of the field.
- **Learner game exercise:** Sort materials and test labelled pole configurations; predict induction and loss of magnetism.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain three magnet interactions and identify a valid test for a permanent magnet.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Three predictions correct and induction explanation does not claim every metal is magnetic. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** All metals are attracted; induced iron repels either pole; breaking a magnet isolates a single pole.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 1; 20–25 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional magnets/material observations; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="mg-02"></a>
#### LECTURE MG-02: Mapping magnetic fields

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.7.1.2 / 6.7.1.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.41–42; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35. Skills: WS1.2,2.2,2.6; MS5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Use a compass to plot field direction; interpret line density and Earth’s magnetic field.
- **Prerequisites:** MG-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Field direction defined by force on north test pole; outside bar magnet N→S; strongest near poles; model field lines.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Plot compass directions point by point; show Earth’s compass alignment as evidence for a magnetic interior.
- **Learner game exercise:** Place virtual compass samples, trace field curves and compare strengths at distances.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Draw two annotated field diagrams and explain compass orientation.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Consistent arrows, denser lines near poles and correct direction definition. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Field lines are strings; compass points at the nearest drawn line; magnetic and geographic north are identical concepts.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional compass field plotting; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="mg-03"></a>
#### LECTURE MG-03: Current, solenoids and electromagnets

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + P devices. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.7.2.1 / 6.7.2.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.41–42; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35. Skills: WS1.2,1.4,2.2; MS5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Sketch current-produced fields; predict effects of current, distance, coil shape and iron core; P: interpret device diagrams.
- **Prerequisites:** MG-02,EL-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** A,T when quantified later; straight-wire circular field; solenoid strong approximately uniform interior; core strengthens field.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Reverse current to reverse directions; compare wire, solenoid and iron-core models.
- **Learner game exercise:** Build an electromagnet for a lifting target with labelled current/core choices; P diagnose a relay or bell diagram.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Draw wire/coil fields and explain two strengthening changes; P one device causal chain.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct directions for supplied current and explanation identifies current/core; P device explanation complete. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Any coil becomes a permanent magnet; magnetic effect requires motion of the whole wire; detailed device interpretation is shared specification.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional low-voltage electromagnet investigation; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="mg-u2"></a>
### UNIT MG-U2: Motor effect

**Contains:** [MG-04 — Motor effect and Fleming’s left-hand rule](#mg-04); [MG-05 — Electric motors](#mg-05); [MG-06 — Loudspeakers and headphones](#mg-06).

**Unit assessment:** [MG-U2 assessment](#assessment-mg-u2); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-mg).

<a id="mg-04"></a>
#### LECTURE MG-04: Motor effect and Fleming’s left-hand rule

- **Scope and curriculum:** C-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.7.2.2 / 6.7.2.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.41–42; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35. Skills: WS1.2; MS3b,3c,5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Predict conductor-force direction; calculate force for a perpendicular conductor; identify factors controlling magnitude.
- **Prerequisites:** MG-03,FM-01,EL-02
- **Concepts, equations and units:** F=BIl at 90°; N,T,A,m; left-hand field/current/force directions; conventional current.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Reverse current and field separately; observe force reversal and compare two lengths.
- **Learner game exercise:** Set current, field and wire length to move a cargo rail in a specified direction.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three F/B/I/l calculations and two direction checks.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two calculations and both orientations correct; applicability condition stated. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Force always along current; use electron flow as conventional-current direction; same formula valid for parallel orientation.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional teacher-led low-voltage motor-effect demo; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="mg-05"></a>
#### LECTURE MG-05: Electric motors

- **Scope and curriculum:** C-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.7.2.3 / 6.7.2.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.41–42; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35. Skills: WS1.2,1.4,3.6 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain coil rotation through forces on opposite sides; connect electrical work to mechanical output.
- **Prerequisites:** MG-04
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Motor-effect forces and moments; N and N m qualitatively; split-ring role can support explanation but no extra motor design equations.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Freeze a coil at several orientations and label opposite forces; show reversal for continuing rotation.
- **Learner game exercise:** Repair coil polarity/contacts in a model motor then predict rotation on field reversal.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Annotated motor diagram and energy-transfer explanation.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Opposite-side forces give consistent turning direction and energy accounting includes surroundings. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Both sides feel the same-direction force; a motor creates energy; every motor turns continuously without commutation.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional safe model motor demonstration; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="mg-06"></a>
#### LECTURE MG-06: Loudspeakers and headphones

- **Scope and curriculum:** P-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.7.2.4 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.41–42; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35. Skills: WS1.2,1.4,3.6; MS4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain moving-coil conversion from changing current to pressure variations.
- **Prerequisites:** MG-04,WA-06,EL-07
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Motor effect; AC current A, frequency Hz; coil/cone displacement; no acoustic power formula.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Show current trace, coil force and cone motion with consistent phase-labelled model.
- **Learner game exercise:** Match electrical frequency to cone motion and sound-pressure waveform; diagnose reversed or missing components.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain a four-stage current→force→vibration→sound chain and interpret a waveform.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** All four links correct and sound frequency tied to drive frequency. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Sound carries the electrical current to the ear; loudspeakers use the generator effect; amplitude changes necessarily change pitch.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional low-volume loudspeaker observation; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="mg-u3"></a>
### UNIT MG-U3: Generator effect and transformers

**Contains:** [MG-07 — Induced potential and opposing change](#mg-07); [MG-08 — Generators, alternators and microphones](#mg-08); [MG-09 — Transformers and quantitative transmission](#mg-09).

**Unit assessment:** [MG-U3 assessment](#assessment-mg-u3); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-mg).

<a id="mg-07"></a>
#### LECTURE MG-07: Induced potential and opposing change

- **Scope and curriculum:** P-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.7.3.1 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.41–42; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35. Skills: WS1.2,1.4,2.2,3.6 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain when p.d./current are induced; predict directions and magnitude changes; explain opposition to the causing change.
- **Prerequisites:** MG-03,EL-02
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Induction needs changing field through/relative to conductor; p.d. V, I A; closed circuit needed for current; no flux-rate formula required.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Move magnet into/out of coil then hold it still; compare open/closed circuits and speeds.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose magnet motion, coil turns and field strength for a supplied output; label induced polarity and opposing response.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Four prediction cases and a conservation-based explanation of mechanical resistance.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Three predictions correct, stationary case zero and open-circuit p.d. distinguished from current. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Any magnet beside a coil induces current; induced field opposes the field itself rather than its change; current exists in an open circuit.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 4; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional magnet–coil–meter investigation; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="mg-08"></a>
#### LECTURE MG-08: Generators, alternators and microphones

- **Scope and curriculum:** P-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.7.3.2–4.7.3.3 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.41–42; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35. Skills: WS1.4,3.2,3.6; MS4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain alternator AC and dynamo DC outputs; interpret p.d.–time graphs; explain moving-coil microphone.
- **Prerequisites:** MG-07,MG-06
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Generated p.d. V against time s; AC alternates sign, dynamo unidirectional pulsing DC; microphone pressure→motion→induction.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare rotating-coil connection models and corresponding traces; reverse microphone conversion chain.
- **Learner game exercise:** Select an alternator/dynamo for supplied output requirement and order microphone signal stages.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Draw/interpret two generator traces; write a microphone explanation contrasting loudspeaker.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct output signs and complete microphone chain, with energy supplied by mechanical input. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Dynamo DC must be perfectly constant; microphone uses motor effect to create sound; generators create charge.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 4; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional safe generator/microphone demonstrations; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="mg-09"></a>
#### LECTURE MG-09: Transformers and quantitative transmission

- **Scope and curriculum:** P-H. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.7.3.4 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.41–42; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.34–35. Skills: WS1.4,3.6; MS1c,3b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain AC transformer action; calculate turns/p.d. ratios and ideal power/current changes; connect to Grid losses.
- **Prerequisites:** MG-07,EL-09
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Vp/Vs=np/ns; ideal VpIp=VsIs; V,A,W; alternating core field; actual efficiency separately stated.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Show two coils on iron core; predict step-up/down voltages, distinguish ideal from measured power.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose turns and current ratings for a model distribution chain; compare cable loss at fixed transmitted power.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Three transformer/ideal-power problems plus a Grid explanation; use I²R from EL-08.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two calculations correct, step-up implies lower secondary current for ideal fixed power, and AC requirement explained. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Transformer works continuously on DC; more turns create power; ideal input/output equality asserted for real lossy device.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 4; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Optional approved low-voltage transformer demonstration; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.


<a id="atomic-physics"></a>
## 12. AREA: Atomic physics

<a id="at-u1"></a>
### UNIT AT-U1: Atomic structure and models

**Contains:** [AT-01 — Atoms, ions and isotopes](#at-01); [AT-02 — Evidence and the changing atomic model](#at-02).

**Unit assessment:** [AT-U1 assessment](#assessment-at-u1); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-at).

<a id="at-01"></a>
#### LECTURE AT-01: Atoms, ions and isotopes

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.4.1.1–4.4.1.2 / 6.4.1.1–6.4.1.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.43–44; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–36. Skills: WS1.2,4.4; MS1b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Use atomic notation to count protons/neutrons/electrons; distinguish isotopes/ions; describe electron energy-level changes.
- **Prerequisites:** P0 standard form; PM-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Atom radius about 10⁻¹⁰ m; nucleus less than 1/10,000 radius; Z protons,A nucleons; electron charge negative; radiation absorption/emission alters levels.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Build labelled atomic diagrams with scale disclaimer; remove an electron versus change neutron count.
- **Learner game exercise:** Assemble three isotope/ion identities and choose whether a transition absorbs or emits radiation.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Four particle-count questions, one size-ratio comparison and an energy-level explanation.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Three counts correct, ion/isotope distinction and emission direction correct. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Positive ion gains protons; isotope means charged; electron paths are literal planetary orbits or scale-accurate rings.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; model and notation exercise. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="at-02"></a>
#### LECTURE AT-02: Evidence and the changing atomic model

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.4.1.3 / 6.4.1.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.43–44; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–36. Skills: WS1.1,1.2,1.6,3.6; MS2c,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Use scattering evidence to explain replacement of plum-pudding model; sequence electron, nucleus, Bohr levels, proton and neutron developments.
- **Prerequisites:** AT-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Models predict observations; most alpha pass, few large deflections; nucleus tiny,dense,positive; Chadwick neutron evidence.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Predict scattering patterns from two models then reveal an evidence histogram; explain revision and peer scrutiny.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose a model consistent with supplied trajectories and write a revision memo citing observations.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Interpret frequency table/histogram and produce a two-observation argument.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Both key observations linked to nuclear structure and historical sequence broadly correct. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Most alpha particles hit nucleus; one diagram proves every model feature; Bohr/Chadwick experimental detail is required.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No live radiation apparatus; historical-data simulation. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="at-u2"></a>
### UNIT AT-U2: Radioactive decay and evidence

**Contains:** [AT-03 — Radioactive decay and nuclear emissions](#at-03); [AT-04 — Balancing nuclear equations](#at-04); [AT-05 — Half-life and random decay data](#at-05); [AT-06 — Contamination, irradiation and evidence quality](#at-06).

**Unit assessment:** [AT-U2 assessment](#assessment-at-u2); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-at).

<a id="at-03"></a>
#### LECTURE AT-03: Radioactive decay and nuclear emissions

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.4.2.1 / 6.4.2.1`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.43–44; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–36. Skills: WS1.2,1.5,4.2; MS2c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Describe unstable-nucleus decay and activity; compare alpha, beta, gamma and neutron emissions, penetration and ionisation.
- **Prerequisites:** AT-01,WA-08
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Activity Bq=decays/s; count rate counts/s differs due to detection; alpha helium nucleus, beta electron from nuclear process, gamma EM, neutron uncharged.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Use stochastic model decay and shielding cards; distinguish emissions from electron-shell events.
- **Learner game exercise:** Select shielding/detection for supplied evidence and classify radiation by charge, mass, range and penetration.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain decay randomness and interpret three detector/shield cases.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Alpha/beta/gamma identities and comparisons correct; neutron identified; activity/count rate distinguished. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Beta is an orbital electron ejected by warming; gamma is a massive particle; decay can be timed for one nucleus.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** Simulation/supplied detector data; any school source work follows specialist controls; no RP. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="at-04"></a>
#### LECTURE AT-04: Balancing nuclear equations

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.4.2.2 / 6.4.2.2`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.43–44; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–36. Skills: WS1.2,4.1; MS1b,3c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Balance A and Z for alpha/beta/gamma decay; explain why gamma changes neither.
- **Prerequisites:** AT-03
- **Concepts, equations and units:** A/Z bookkeeping; alpha ⁴₂He, beta ⁰₋₁e; beta-minus neutron→proton in nucleus; element identity changes when Z changes.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Demonstrate a worked alpha and beta decay; keep nucleon-number balance separate from electric charge notation.
- **Learner game exercise:** Place missing daughter/emission tiles in nuclear equations and verify both balances.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Four equation completions plus one explanation of gamma decay.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Three equations correct and gamma changes neither A nor Z. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Beta emission lowers daughter Z; atomic mass number means electron count; gamma removes a proton.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; symbolic practice. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="at-05"></a>
#### LECTURE AT-05: Half-life and random decay data

- **Scope and curriculum:** C + H net-decline calculations. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.4.2.3 / 6.4.2.3`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.43–44; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–36. Skills: WS1.2,3.4,3.7; MS1c,3d,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Determine half-life from data/graphs; explain aggregate predictability versus individual randomness; H calculate net decline over half-lives.
- **Prerequisites:** AT-03; P0 fractions
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Half-life in s or labelled time; corrected count rate after background subtraction; H fractions N=N0(½)^n and decline=N0−N, integer n practice.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Run repeat stochastic populations then plot count rate; compare large versus small samples.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose a half-life and estimate it from noisy model measurements; separate background from source counts.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Read two half-lives; H two remaining/declined fraction problems; estimate range from repeats.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct graph interval and randomness explanation; H distinguishes remaining from declined proportion. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** After two half-lives nothing remains; half-life is half the total decay time; every nucleus decays at the half-life.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; random-decay model/supplied counts. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="at-06"></a>
#### LECTURE AT-06: Contamination, irradiation and evidence quality

- **Scope and curriculum:** C. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.4.2.4 / 6.4.2.4`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.43–44; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–36. Skills: WS1.5,1.6,3.7,3.8 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Distinguish contamination/irradiation and their hazards; evaluate precautions and the value of peer-reviewed risk evidence.
- **Prerequisites:** AT-03,AT-05
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Contamination radioactive material present; irradiation exposure to radiation; risk depends on radiation, dose, exposure and location.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare external source removed with deposited source remaining; analyse supplied evidence without medical claims.
- **Learner game exercise:** Audit lab-scenario cards for distance,time,shielding and containment choices; critique a flawed public claim.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Write two safety explanations and evaluate a study’s method, sample and publication status.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Both definitions correct, precautions matched to mechanism and a substantive evidence limitation identified. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Irradiation always makes an object radioactive; contamination ends when the external source is switched off.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; only simulated/source-based radiation safety tasks. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="at-u3"></a>
### UNIT AT-U3: Uses and nuclear energy

**Contains:** [AT-07 — Background radiation, uses and half-life choices](#at-07); [AT-08 — Fission and controlled chain reactions](#at-08); [AT-09 — Fusion and comparison with fission](#at-09).

**Unit assessment:** [AT-U3 assessment](#assessment-at-u3); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-at).

<a id="at-07"></a>
#### LECTURE AT-07: Background radiation, uses and half-life choices

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.4.3.1–4.4.3.3 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.43–44; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–36. Skills: WS1.4,1.5,3.5; MS1c,2c (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Identify natural/artificial background sources; justify isotope/radiation choices for tracers and treatment using half-life and penetration.
- **Prerequisites:** AT-05,AT-06
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Background cosmic/rocks/medical/nuclear sources; dose Sv/mSv supplied; activity Bq; short/long half-life risk and usefulness; tracer versus therapy.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare fictional isotope cards; distinguish diagnostic detection from treatment energy absorption.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose a tracer or treatment card using supplied half-life/penetration data and minimise exposure; choices are educational, not clinical recommendations.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Interpret background/dose data and justify two isotope selections with trade-offs.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Natural/artificial sources distinguished, two evidence-based selections and risk limitation stated. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Background is entirely man-made; longest half-life always best; activity equals dose.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; datasets/simulation only. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="at-08"></a>
#### LECTURE AT-08: Fission and controlled chain reactions

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.4.4.1 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.43–44; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–36. Skills: WS1.2,1.4,3.6 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain induced fission, neutron release and chain reactions; identify control roles and energy transfers.
- **Prerequisites:** AT-03,EN-11
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Heavy nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei plus neutrons and radiation; kinetic energy of products; control rods absorb neutrons; no mass-energy equation required.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Show probabilistic neutron branching with controllable absorption; distinguish controlled reactor and uncontrolled chain reaction.
- **Learner game exercise:** Adjust model neutron absorption to maintain a stated reaction rate and explain resulting energy ledger.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Label a reaction diagram and write a four-step chain/control explanation.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Correct initiating neutron, products and subsequent-neutron chain; control explanation conserves energy. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Fission is burning; rods supply extra neutrons; every emitted neutron causes another fission.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; abstract model, no reactor-operation instructions. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="at-09"></a>
#### LECTURE AT-09: Fusion and comparison with fission

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.4.4.2 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.43–44; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.35–36. Skills: WS1.2,3.6,4.1 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain fusion of light nuclei and energy release; compare with fission and prepare stellar link.
- **Prerequisites:** AT-08,EN-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Light nuclei combine into heavier nucleus; some mass becomes energy; qualitative only, no E=mc² calculation requirement.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Contrast joining/splitting nuclear diagrams; state particle colours and sizes are symbolic.
- **Learner game exercise:** Sort reaction cards and complete store/transfer maps for fusion versus fission contexts.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Two reaction explanations and a comparison including nuclear changes and energy source.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Joining/splitting correctly distinguished and energy source attributed to nuclear processes rather than chemical combustion. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Fusion splits heavy nuclei; Sun burns ordinary fuel; mass conservation in ordinary phase changes forbids nuclear mass-energy release.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; model only. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.


<a id="space-physics"></a>
## 13. AREA: Space physics

<a id="sp-u1"></a>
### UNIT SP-U1: Solar system and orbits

**Contains:** [SP-01 — Solar system and cosmic scale](#sp-01); [SP-02 — Gravity and stable orbits](#sp-02).

**Unit assessment:** [SP-U1 assessment](#assessment-sp-u1); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-sp).

<a id="sp-01"></a>
#### LECTURE SP-01: Solar system and cosmic scale

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.8.1.1,4.8.1.3 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.44–45; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) no Space physics section. Skills: WS1.2,4.4; MS1b,2h,5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Distinguish star, planet, dwarf planet, moon and artificial satellite; locate solar system within Milky Way.
- **Prerequisites:** FM-02,AT-09
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Sun, eight planets, dwarf planets, natural satellites; scale distances in m and standard form; no orbital-period equation required.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Show nested scale views and flag all compressed distances/oversized planet depictions.
- **Learner game exercise:** Place object/category cards and navigate a scale slider; compare orders of magnitude from supplied data.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Classify six objects and calculate two scale ratios; distinguish scale model from navigable scene.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Five classifications and one ratio correct; hierarchy system→galaxy clear. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Solar system equals galaxy; every orbiting object is a planet; rendered distance is physical astronomical distance.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 2; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; observational/model data. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="sp-02"></a>
#### LECTURE SP-02: Gravity and stable orbits

- **Scope and curriculum:** P + P-H explanations. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.8.1.3 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.44–45; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) no Space physics section. Skills: WS1.2,3.6; MS5b (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Describe gravity-maintained planetary/satellite orbits; H explain changing velocity at constant speed and radius change for a different stable speed.
- **Prerequisites:** SP-01,FM-07,FM-11
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Gravitational force directed inward; circular orbit approximation; H constant speed/changing direction; no centripetal-force/orbital-speed formula requirement.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Freeze orbit positions and annotate inward force and tangential velocity; H compare two consistent stable orbits.
- **Learner game exercise:** Predict motion if inward force removed; H choose model radius consistent with a supplied changed stable speed.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Annotated orbit explanation; H compare radius/speed cases qualitatively using model evidence.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Force points toward centre, velocity tangent; H changing direction and stable-radius condition correct. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Gravity absent in orbit; inward force points along velocity; any chosen speed remains stable at fixed radius.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; analytical orbit model required, not Roblox engine default. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="sp-u2"></a>
### UNIT SP-U2: Stars and elements

**Contains:** [SP-03 — Star formation and life cycles](#sp-03); [SP-04 — Elements from stars](#sp-04).

**Unit assessment:** [SP-U2 assessment](#assessment-sp-u2); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-sp).

<a id="sp-03"></a>
#### LECTURE SP-03: Star formation and life cycles

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.8.1.1–4.8.1.2 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.44–45; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) no Space physics section. Skills: WS1.2,3.6; MS2h (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain gravitational formation and main-sequence balance; sequence Sun-like and much more massive star life cycles.
- **Prerequisites:** AT-09,SP-01
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Nebula→protostar→main sequence; Sun-like red giant→white dwarf→black dwarf theoretical future stage; massive red supergiant→supernova→neutron star/black hole.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare two labelled timelines with time-scale disclaimers; explain gravity inward balanced by outward pressure sustained by fusion.
- **Learner game exercise:** Choose stellar mass branch and order stages; repair a model falsely showing Sun as supernova.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Two life-cycle diagrams and a main-sequence stability explanation.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Both branches correct and equilibrium linked to fusion-supported pressure; black dwarfs labelled not observed within current cosmic age. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Every star ends as black hole; Sun will explode as supernova; star stages happen over game-time seconds.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 30–35 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; observational/model evidence. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="sp-04"></a>
#### LECTURE SP-04: Elements from stars

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.8.1.2 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.44–45; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) no Space physics section. Skills: WS1.2,1.3,3.6 (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain formation/dispersal of elements through stellar processes at GCSE level; distinguish a syllabus model from modern refinements.
- **Prerequisites:** SP-03,AT-09
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Fusion builds heavier nuclei; AQA model links elements heavier than iron to supernovae; enrichment and dispersal; no quantitative nucleosynthesis.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Trace labelled nuclei through a simplified massive-star history; state that the full astrophysics includes other formation sites/processes.
- **Learner game exercise:** Assemble an evidence-based origin/dispersal narrative for material forming later stars and planets.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Explain new element formation and supernova dispersal in four ordered statements.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Fusion changes nuclear identity, heavy-element/dispersal account matches GCSE model, and limitation is explicit. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** All elements form by ordinary combustion; every naturally occurring element formed by fusion in a present-day Sun-like star.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 25–30 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; models and supplied astronomical evidence. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="sp-u3"></a>
### UNIT SP-U3: Expanding universe

**Contains:** [SP-05 — Red-shift, expansion and evidence limits](#sp-05).

**Unit assessment:** [SP-U3 assessment](#assessment-sp-u3); area capstone: [assessment catalogue](#capstone-sp).

<a id="sp-05"></a>
#### LECTURE SP-05: Red-shift, expansion and evidence limits

- **Scope and curriculum:** P. [AQA Physics](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) / [Trilogy](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF): `4.8.2 / —`. [DfE single-science](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b951ed915d50c208b4d5/GCSE_single_science_updated_May_2019.pdf) pp.44–45; [DfE Combined](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5cd2b8b4ed915d50b6c44ffa/Combined_science_GCSE_updated_May_2019.pdf) no Space physics section. Skills: WS1.1–1.3,1.6,3.5,3.7; MS2g,4a (see [skills matrix](#skills)).
- **Learning objectives:** Explain wavelength red-shift and distance/recession evidence; relate it to Big Bang model; acknowledge dark matter/energy and observational uncertainty.
- **Prerequisites:** WA-08,SP-01,SP-03
- **Concepts, equations and units:** Red-shift means longer observed wavelength; expansion from hot dense early state; qualitative recession–distance relation, no Hubble-law formula required.
- **Lecturer prediction, demonstration and explanation:** Compare emitted/observed line spectra and a distance–red-shift scatter plot; separate observations from interpretations.
- **Learner game exercise:** Match shifted spectral lines, order galaxies by recession evidence and write a model-evaluation memo.
- **Calculation, data, graph or explanation practice:** Interpret three spectra/graph cases; critique one unsupported claim and distinguish dark matter from dark energy.
- **Formative/exit assessment and success criteria:** Two spectral comparisons correct plus a supported expansion argument and a substantive unresolved question. During practice, check the learner’s prediction against evidence and give an error-specific prompt; use a fresh independent exit item.
- **Common misconceptions to diagnose:** Red-shift means galaxies are red coloured; Big Bang was an explosion into pre-existing empty space; uncertainty invalidates every observation.
- **Proposed difficulty and duration:** 3; 35–40 min; apply the shared mastery rubric.
- **Practical links:** No RP; supplied astronomical datasets. Virtual preparation/revision only; hands-on completion is separate.

<a id="assessments"></a>
## 14. Unit assessments and area capstones

Every unit has an independent assessment below. Proposed duration is 20–30 minutes unless already combined with a capstone. Use a short concept check, an unfamiliar scenario, maths/data evidence where appropriate and a misconception/method explanation; choose items by qualification/tier. The listed success criteria are local mastery gates, not exam-board grade boundaries. General pass: all critical conceptual/model/safety criteria satisfied, at least 80% of available routine item marks and level-2 independent evidence. Rubrics should credit valid alternative reasoning and working even when a final number is wrong; items and mark schemes are still to be authored and moderated.

<a id="assessment-en-u1"></a>
- **EN-U1:** Identify stores/pathways in a kettle and lift; repair a friction-ramp energy ledger. **Success:** All ledger totals balance; two complete chains; no destroyed-energy claim. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-en-u2"></a>
- **EN-U2:** Mixed GPE, KE, spring-energy and work/power tasks with one formula rearrangement; compare lift times. **Success:** At least 4/5 values correct with SI units; squared-variable effects and power distinction explained. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-en-u3"></a>
- **EN-U3:** Analyse heater and cooling datasets, calculate c and η, evaluate controls/losses; H improvement. **Success:** Valid graph and method critique, correct ratios; H justified efficiency improvement independently. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-en-u4"></a>
- **EN-U4:** Compare resource profiles for heating, transport and electricity; EN-12 is the unit/area capstone. **Success:** Evidence covers reliability, environmental effects and quantitative demand; science/policy separated. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-fm-u1"></a>
- **FM-U1:** Mass/weight, interactions and linear resultants; H free-body and scale-vector diagram. **Success:** 4/5 core items correct; correct units/directions; H vector tolerance stated and met. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-fm-u2"></a>
- **FM-U2:** Spring data and friction-work ledger; explain elastic/inelastic and proportionality limits. **Success:** Correct k and work with units; valid linear-range conclusion and fair-test plan. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-fm-u3"></a>
- **FM-U3:** Translate trip data between words/tables/graphs; calculate speed/acceleration; H tangent/area; P terminal trace. **Success:** At least 4/5 routed items correct with physically consistent labelled graphs. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-fm-u4"></a>
- **FM-U4:** Explain three law cases, plan both acceleration comparisons, interpret stopping/reaction datasets. **Success:** Third-law bodies distinguished; controlled F/m investigations; stopping chain evidence valid. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-fm-u5"></a>
- **FM-U5:** H momentum cases; P-H collision and protection calculations. **Success:** Momentum signs/conservation correct; P-H final speed/average-force reasoning with model conditions. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-fm-u6"></a>
- **FM-U6:** P crane moments and atmospheric/fluid pressure; P-H depth/upthrust scenario. **Success:** Perpendicular moment arm and area units correct; H buoyancy tied to pressure difference. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-el-u1"></a>
- **EL-U1:** Build a circuit from a diagram; calculate Q,V,I,R; interpret all three RP I–V components and both resistance parts. **Success:** Meters placed correctly; 4/5 calculation/graph items; controlled complete practical plans. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-el-u2"></a>
- **EL-U2:** Solve and explain a changed series/parallel network without using a reciprocal formula as a required method. **Success:** Two circuit solutions obey current/p.d. rules and correct equivalent-resistance trend. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-el-u3"></a>
- **EL-U3:** Audit mains diagrams and explain protection; mixed electrical-energy/power calculation and Grid chain. **Success:** Correct wire/fault-path reasoning and 3/4 values; high-V/lower-I/lower-loss chain. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-el-u4"></a>
- **EL-U4:** P electron-transfer scenarios, radial fields and sparks. **Success:** Charge conservation, signs and field direction correct in two changed contexts. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-pm-u1"></a>
- **PM-U1:** Regular-solid, irregular-solid and liquid density methods and data with conversions. **Success:** All methods valid; 2/3 densities correct; quantified volume uncertainty and improvement. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-pm-u2"></a>
- **PM-U2:** Mixed SHC/latent-heat problems and heating/cooling curve; explain internal energy. **Success:** At least 3/4 values and correct plateau explanation; particle size and mass conservation accurate. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-pm-u3"></a>
- **PM-U3:** Shared collision/temperature explanation; P pV cases; P-H compression comparison. **Success:** Conditions identified and routed gas model valid; reject isothermal equation when temperature changes. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-wa-u1"></a>
- **WA-U1:** Identify wave types, calculate v/T, plan ripple/solid RP and sound-speed method. **Success:** Both RP contexts covered; 3/4 values correct; propagation distinct from particle motion. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-wa-u2"></a>
- **WA-U2:** Shared refraction rays; H wavefront explanation; P reflection/sound; P-H echo/seismic evidence. **Success:** Routed diagrams correct and evidence explanation preserves frequency/path length and media rules. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-wa-u3"></a>
- **WA-U3:** Spectrum/applications/risk data and IR investigation; H radio/suitability/selective interactions. **Success:** Spectrum complete, justified risk inference, fair IR comparison; H frequency correspondence. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-wa-u4"></a>
- **WA-U4:** P lens/colour/spectrum tasks; P-H Earth radiation-balance explanation. **Success:** Correct ray/image/colour predictions; no-unit magnification; H net-power temperature direction. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-mg-u1"></a>
- **MG-U1:** Permanent/induced cases, compass maps and wire/coil fields; P electromagnetic device. **Success:** Pole/direction rules correct; current/core causal explanation; P device chain. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-mg-u2"></a>
- **MG-U2:** H conductor-force/motor tasks; P-H loudspeaker explanation. **Success:** 2/3 values plus two correct orientations; coherent rotation/sound chain on routed tasks. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-mg-u3"></a>
- **MG-U3:** P-H induction predictions, generator traces, microphone chain and transformer/Grid calculations. **Success:** Changing-field condition, opposing-change explanation, AC/ideal-power limits and 3/4 values correct. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-at-u1"></a>
- **AT-U1:** Isotope/ion notation, transitions and model-change evidence. **Success:** 3/4 counts and two observation→model links; scale and historical-model caveats. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-at-u2"></a>
- **AT-U2:** Emission/shield cases, nuclear equations, half-life graph, contamination/irradiation and study critique; H decline. **Success:** 3/4 symbols/calculations and valid safety/evidence reasoning; H remaining/declined distinction. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-at-u3"></a>
- **AT-U3:** P isotope-choice, background evidence and fission/fusion explanations. **Success:** Two justified choices and accurate controlled-chain/fusion comparison; activity/dose distinguished. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-sp-u1"></a>
- **SP-U1:** P solar-system scale and satellite distinctions; H circular velocity/stable-radius explanation. **Success:** Correct hierarchy, one scale ratio and inward force; H speed/direction/radius conditions. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-sp-u2"></a>
- **SP-U2:** P two stellar lifecycles, main-sequence equilibrium and element dispersal. **Success:** Both branches and fusion-supported balance correct; enrichment explanation labels simplified scope. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

<a id="assessment-sp-u3"></a>
- **SP-U3:** P spectral shifts, recession–distance evidence and a Big Bang model critique; SP-05 plus space capstone. **Success:** Two data links support expansion; unresolved dark matter/energy and observational limits separated. **Retrieval:** one fresh concept and one transfer item after about 1 and 4 weeks.

### Area capstones

A capstone is an applied synthesis task followed by an individually marked calculation/data/explanation response. A pleasing build alone cannot pass. Use the same evidence rubric, with route-specific branch criteria and one model/method limitation.

<a id="capstone-en"></a>
- **EN-CAP — EN-12 community energy challenge:** Reuse EN-12; add a fresh friction/thermal transfer ledger and one practical-method critique. **Success:** Supplied demand met; two correct calculations and reasoned resource/efficiency choice. **Proposed time:** 40–45 min, already counted in lecture time. **Difficulty:** shared core 3; H/P-H synthesis 4 where applicable.

<a id="capstone-fm"></a>
- **FM-CAP — Design a safe cargo transport system:** Shared: load/forces, motion graphs, stopping and spring buffer method. H: momentum/vector branch. P: crane moment; P-H fluid pressure/protection branch. **Success:** Three linked quantities correct, force/motion diagrams consistent and safety evidence justified. **Proposed time:** 45–55 min. **Difficulty:** shared core 3; H/P-H synthesis 4 where applicable.

<a id="capstone-el"></a>
- **EL-CAP — Power a safe model workshop:** Build series/parallel low-voltage lighting, analyse fault diagrams, budget energy and explain Grid delivery. P: static-charge inspection. **Success:** Circuit laws and energy ledger agree; protection explanation and one practical-method evaluation pass. **Proposed time:** 40–50 min. **Difficulty:** shared core 3; H/P-H synthesis 4 where applicable.

<a id="capstone-pm"></a>
- **PM-CAP — Choose a thermal cargo container:** Determine cargo density, interpret a heating/state-change trace and predict gas-pressure response. P: pV; P-H rapid compression comparison. **Success:** Methods, phase/temperature distinction and gas conditions correct with two calculations. **Proposed time:** 40–50 min. **Difficulty:** shared core 3; H/P-H synthesis 4 where applicable.

<a id="capstone-wa"></a>
- **WA-CAP — Investigate a signal and imaging station:** Shared: waves/EM, refraction and IR surface data. H: transmission explanation. P: lens/colour. P-H echo/seismic/radiation balance branches. **Success:** Routed diagrams and three calculated/data conclusions consistent; limitations and one practical plan justified. **Proposed time:** 45–55 min. **Difficulty:** shared core 3; H/P-H synthesis 4 where applicable.

<a id="capstone-mg"></a>
- **MG-CAP — Design an electromagnetic service module:** Shared: magnet/compass/solenoid system. H: motor transport. P devices; P-H microphone/generator/transformer module. **Success:** Field directions/energy path valid; routed calculations and device causal chain pass. **Proposed time:** 35–50 min. **Difficulty:** shared core 3; H/P-H synthesis 4 where applicable.

<a id="capstone-at"></a>
- **AT-CAP — Curate a radiation-evidence exhibition:** Shared: model evidence, isotope/decay data, safety and peer review. H: decline. P: tracer/treatment and fission/fusion boards. **Success:** No isotope/ion or irradiation/contamination confusion; data argument and routed calculations pass. **Proposed time:** 40–50 min. **Difficulty:** shared core 3; H/P-H synthesis 4 where applicable.

<a id="capstone-sp"></a>
- **SP-CAP — Build an evidence-led observatory tour:** Separate-only: classify scales, explain two stellar futures and red-shift evidence; H annotate stable orbits; critique model scale and cosmic uncertainty. **Success:** Correct lifecycle branches and three observation→inference links; H orbit conditions; uncertainty honestly communicated. **Proposed time:** 45–55 min. **Difficulty:** shared core 3; H/P-H synthesis 4 where applicable.

### Whole-course independent review

Propose two mixed review sessions, 45–60 minutes each, following the selected route. Use novel contexts, graphs, practical-method evaluation and extended explanations; include cross-area energy/electricity links. These are study-resource assessments, not replicas of official papers or grade predictors. Check original questions against official command words and current public sample/examiner guidance without copying restricted question-bank content. AQA assessment objectives are AO1 knowledge/understanding, AO2 application and AO3 analysis/evaluation; use these as an audit lens rather than equate every multiple-choice task to AO1. For assessment design, the specifications target approximately 40% AO1, 40% AO2, 20% AO3; mathematical marks account for at least 30% in Physics, and at least 20% across the whole Combined qualification; practical understanding accounts for at least 15%. A Physics-only component product does not by itself establish qualification-wide Combined percentages. Check the official scheme of assessment before reproducing these as a formal assessment blueprint.

<a id="skills"></a>
## 15. Mathematics and working scientifically

The exact skill codes below refer to [8463 §7 and §3](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF) and [8464 §9 and §3](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF). DfE mathematical taxonomy is Appendix 3 (single p.49, Combined p.40), not Appendix 1, which contains equations. Physics deliberately omits some codes from the full science maths list; do not present probability or trigonometric force calculations as mandatory just because they occur elsewhere in science/maths.

### Mathematical coverage

| Exact codes | Proposed practice and verification evidence | Route/tier note |
|---|---|---|
| MS1a decimal; 1b standard form | P0 conversions, EN-08 measured c, WA-08 EM wavelengths, AT-01 sizes, SP-01 cosmic ratios | Core arithmetic; space context P. |
| MS1c ratios/fractions/percentages; 1d estimates | EN-10 efficiency, FM-07 rates, FM-13 speed/force estimates, AT-05 fractions | Half-life net-decline calculations H; force estimates in braking H. |
| MS2a significant figures; 2b arithmetic means | EN-08 heater repeats; PM-02 density readings; WA-03 speed readings | Teach resolution and preserve intermediate precision; no spurious extra decimal places. |
| MS2c frequency tables/diagrams, bars/histograms | EN-11 resource bars; FM-13 reaction-time distributions with suitable bins; AT-02 scattering frequencies | Require both table/graph interpretation and at least one construction; histogram density explained if unequal bin widths used, otherwise use equal widths. |
| MS2f mean/mode/median | FM-13 supplied reaction-time dataset; compare influence of an anomaly | Teach distinction; do not assume averages alone establish accuracy. |
| MS2g scatter diagrams/correlation | Shared capstone dataset: surface temperature versus cooling observations; compare correlation with confounders. SP-05 recession evidence P | Add shared dataset even on a route without Space; teach association versus causal evidence. |
| MS2h orders of magnitude | P0 and EN-11 fictional supply data; FM-13 transport estimates; SP-01 scales P | Ensure shared routes receive a quantitative estimate, not just vocabulary. |
| MS3a symbols =,<,<<,>>,>,∝,~ | P0 quantity comparisons; EN-05 square law; FM-02 weight proportionality; FM-12 force/mass relationships | H inertial-mass explanation separately gated. |
| MS3b rearrangement; 3c substitution/units; 3d simple algebra | EN-U2/3, EL-U1/2/3, PM-U1/2; routed assessments demand independent working | Use current equation-sheet practice; no assumption a supplied equation removes algebra/units demand. |
| MS4a graphical/numerical translation; 4b y=mx+c; 4c plotting; 4d slope/intercept | EN-04 GPE/height, EL-03 resistance/length, FM-08/09 motion, FM-05 spring graph | State physical meaning and unit of gradient/intercept; distinguish linear from direct proportionality through origin. |
| MS4e tangent; 4f area under curve/counting squares | FM-08 instantaneous speed tangent, FM-09 velocity–time areas; WA-11 cooling slope when appropriate | H motion tasks explicitly gated. Core Foundation uses straight-line gradients; advanced practice labelled optional enrichment if shown. |
| MS5a degrees; 5b 2D/3D representations; 5c areas/volumes | Shared WA-05 refraction, P0/PM-02 volume; FM-04 scale vectors H; WA-12 lenses P | Force resolution by scale drawing only; triangle/rectangle areas and cube/cuboid volumes, no required trigonometry. |

Every equation card identifies symbols, SI units, valid conditions and what changes when a variable changes. Explicitly distinguish W as work, W as weight and W as the watt unit; p as pressure versus momentum; T as period versus tesla unit. No central blanket statement that “all equations must be recalled”: current exam support supersedes older PDF recall/given phrasing. Games should teach equation fluency with the correct qualification/year sheet available and examine reasoning beyond copying it.

### Working scientifically coverage

| Exact codes | Deliberate teaching/evidence opportunities | Limit of virtual evidence |
|---|---|---|
| WS1.1 models/theories change | AT-02 scattering; WA-07 seismic evidence P-H; SP-05 cosmology P | Learner cites observations that favour revision; animation alone is not evidence from the natural world. |
| WS1.2 models; 1.3 strengths/limits of science | EN-03 accounting, PM particle model, EN-12 resource trade-offs, WA-14/SP-05 limits P | Learner states a model assumption and a question the data cannot answer. |
| WS1.4 applications; 1.5 risk | EL-07 mains diagrams, FM-13 transport, AT-06 exposure, EN-11 environmental decisions | Simulated risk choices cannot certify safe apparatus handling. |
| WS1.6 peer review | AT-02/06 evidence publication; capstone critique of two independently collected datasets | Provide contrasting methodology/report quality; require evidence-based critique, not authority guessing. |
| WS2.1 hypothesis; 2.2 planning | EN-08/09, EL-03/04, FM-05/12, WA-11 | Record predicted relationship, IV/DV/controls, range, interval, repeats and justified method. |
| WS2.3 apparatus selection; 2.4 appropriate experiments | PM-02 choose ruler/displacement vessel/balance; EL-03 meter diagrams; practical-prep notebook | Virtual configuration rehearses decisions; hands-on manipulation must be separately taught/observed. |
| WS2.5 representative sampling | FM-13 sampling plan for reaction-time participants/trials; EL-03 resistance readings sampled across the wire-length range | Require a reason for the sampling approach; representative participant sampling is not equivalent to taking many trials from one person. |
| WS2.6 observations/records; 2.7 method improvements | All practical-prep tasks: raw readings, headings/units, resolution and an improvement tied to an error | Model-generated records are labelled virtual; preserve a separate school record. |
| WS3.1 present data; 3.2 translate; 3.3 analyse | Tables/graphs/calculations in every measurement unit; mixed capstones | At least one independent plot and calculation per relevant unit, not only drag-and-drop labels. |
| WS3.4 distributions/uncertainty | PM-02 volume resolution, AT-05 random decay, FM-13 reaction histogram | Use repeats/ranges and instrument resolution appropriately; confidence not inferred from noiseless output. |
| WS3.5 interpret; 3.6 reasoned explanation | Learner links data to hypothesis in RP preparation and capstones | Include contradictory and incomplete data with appropriately limited conclusions. |
| WS3.7 objectivity/accuracy/precision/repeatability/reproducibility | EL-03 contact/temperature bias; EN-08 heat losses; PM-02 mis-zeroed balance; compare another observer’s dataset | Explain random versus systematic error and justify any excluded reading; distinguish precise from accurate. |
| WS3.8 communicate rationale | Practical notebook plus capstone recommendation/report | Assess method, result, reasoning and limitations; not just presentation quality. |
| WS4.1 vocabulary; 4.2 quantities; 4.3 SI; 4.4 prefixes; 4.5 conversions; 4.6 significant figures | P0 and every quantitative exit, with explicit symbol/quantity/units table | Units must be typed/selected and checked independently of numeric answers. |

<a id="practicals"></a>
## 16. Required practical and apparatus matrix

**Virtual preparation does not complete a required practical.** AQA Physics §8.2 and Trilogy §10.2 require real student practical activity and records; centres submit their practical science statement. The game can rehearse safe setup, variable control, measurement selection and data interpretation, and produce a virtual notebook clearly marked as such. It cannot attest that a learner handled school apparatus. Private/home-educated candidates need arrangements with an appropriate centre. The resource may support school practical lessons and revision, but the school must plan and conduct the activity and maintain contemporary records. Sources: [8463 §§6.8,8](https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/physics/specifications/AQA-8463-SP-2016.PDF), [8464 §§8.8,10](https://media.aqa.org.uk/resources/science/specifications/AQA-8464-SP-2016.PDF).

The RP identifiers below are local unambiguous aliases: RP-P1 means AQA 8463 practical 1; RP-C14 means AQA 8464 qualification-wide practical 14. Never call RP-C14 “Combined practical 1” without explaining that renumbering.

| Requirement / exact section | Shared or separate | Game lecture links and preparation evidence | Physics AT codes |
|---|---|---|---|
| SHC: RP-P1 §8.2.1 / RP-C14 §10.2.14 | Shared | EN-08: balance/heater/temperature/time method, energy input, Δθ, c, loss evaluation; PM-03 revisits explanation | 1,5 |
| Thermal insulation: RP-P2 §8.2.2 / no Trilogy RP | P practical; shared insulation theory | EN-09: material/thickness fair comparison, cooling curves, sensor/control/repeat choices | 1,5 |
| Resistance: RP-P3 §8.2.3 / RP-C15 §10.2.15 | Shared | EL-03/05/06: **both** wire-length at constant temperature and resistor combinations in series/parallel; diagrams and meters | 1,6,7 |
| I–V: RP-P4 §8.2.4 / RP-C16 §10.2.16 | Shared | EL-04: resistor, filament lamp and diode; positive/negative sweep, heating controls and graph interpretation | 6,7 |
| Density: RP-P5 §8.2.5 / RP-C17 §10.2.17 | Shared | PM-02: regular solid, irregular solid and liquid; dimensions/displacement/container mass; uncertainty | 1 |
| Spring: RP-P6 §8.2.6 / RP-C18 §10.2.18 | Shared | FM-05: original length, force steps, extension graph, proportional limit and spring constant | 1,2 |
| Acceleration: RP-P7 §8.2.7 / RP-C19 §10.2.19 | Shared | FM-12: vary force at fixed mass **and** mass at fixed force; total accelerating mass, light-gate/data method | 1,2,3 |
| Waves: RP-P8 §8.2.8 / RP-C20 §10.2.20 | Shared | WA-03: suitable apparatus/measurements for **ripple tank and waves in a solid**, frequency/wavelength/speed | 4 |
| Light reflection/refraction: RP-P9 §8.2.9 / no Trilogy RP | P practical; shared refraction theory | WA-04/05: reflection with different surfaces and refraction with different substances, normal/angles and uncertainties | 4,8 |
| Infrared surfaces: RP-P10 §8.2.10 / RP-C21 §10.2.21 | Shared | WA-11: absorption/radiation variation with surface nature, equal-temperature/geometry controls | 1,4 |

The practical numbers above supersede the introductory “eight” count in the Physics PDF. AQA explicitly lists P2/P9 as separate only; other Physics practicals are shared with Trilogy. RP completion status in a future UI needs two distinct fields: **virtual preparation completed** and **school hands-on record**, the latter entered/verified by the responsible school process, never inferred from game progress.

| Apparatus/technique reference (8463 §8.1; 8464 §10.1 physics) | Programme preparation | Required external evidence before claiming hands-on coverage |
|---|---|---|
| AT1 measurements: length/area/mass/time/volume/temperature/density | EN-08/09, PM-02, EL-03, FM-05/12, WA-03/11 | Real instrument selection, scale reading, resolution, appropriate records. |
| AT2 force effects/springs | FM-05/12; optional FM-02/06/16 | Real newtonmeter/spring/force handling and measurements. |
| AT3 motion/speed/acceleration | FM-07/09/12; optional collisions | Real timing/light-gate/data-logger methods and records. |
| AT4 waves and EM interactions | WA-03/05/11; optional optical tasks | Real ripple/solid-wave measurements and surface interaction observations. |
| AT5 energy transfers/work, safe apparatus use | EN-08/09; EL-08 bridge | Real heater/energy measurements and safe procedures. |
| AT6 current/p.d./resistance and components | EL-03/04/05/06 | Real meter placement, circuit checks and component characteristics. |
| AT7 construct/check circuits from diagrams | EL-U1/2 | Real series/parallel assembly and safe low-voltage equipment. |
| AT8 wave–matter interactions (P only) | WA-04/05 and optional WA-12/13 | Real optical/wave interaction observations suitable to task. |

All practical preparation includes apparatus diagram, hypothesis, IV/DV/controls, range/interval, repeated readings where sensible, safe handling decisions, units/resolution, raw table, graph or calculation, conclusion and justified improvement. Hazards are tied to the actual apparatus (hot heater, electrical load, spring/masses, bright source, water/equipment); simulations must not encourage unsafe home substitutions. Supply teacher-facing notes, not a claim that clicking a virtual safety choice proves competence.

<a id="review"></a>
## 17. Gaps, release gates and whole-course review

### Explicit limits and unresolved production work

- **Board not chosen:** AQA mapping is provisional. Pearson Edexcel, OCR Gateway/Twenty First Century, Eduqas/WJEC routes, other UK jurisdictions and International GCSEs have not been audited. A separate scope/tier/practical map is needed for each claimed route. England GCSE is not a universal UK course.
- **Planned rather than delivered:** narrated scripts, precise item banks, moderated marking guides, full game mechanics, data-model validation and accessibility testing are not built by this document. Each proposed lecture needs those artefacts before release; virtual exercises here are designs.
- **Clause-level verification outstanding:** subsection coverage is checked, but every assessable sentence, qualification-specific sentence and H restriction needs educator sign-off against live official specifications. A matrix entry does not certify that every subtle clause is taught and tested. No unconditional “full alignment” claim is supported yet.
- **Hands-on gap:** no virtual game satisfies school apparatus/manipulation requirements or the centre practical statement. Do not market as replacing practical provision or a complete standalone qualification.
- **Assessment evidence gap:** mastery thresholds/durations/difficulty are proposals; no GCSE grade mapping or learning-effectiveness study has been established. Pilot with Foundation/Higher learners and teachers; compare independent delayed transfer, not just completion.
- **Source freshness:** target-year equation sheets and curriculum reform developments must be checked before each release. Current equation-sheet support extends through the lifetime of current qualifications; future reformed content is not mapped here.
- **Book access limits:** only public listings and samples were inspected, not full licensed books; current edition/approval status must be reconfirmed for any adopted authoring reference. No title is a national prescribed book.
- **Scientific model caveats:** GCSE water waves, atomic shell diagrams, ideal closed systems and stellar element origins are simplified. [NASA’s observational account of heavy elements from star mergers](https://science.nasa.gov/missions/webb/nasas-webb-makes-first-detection-of-heavy-element-from-star-merger/) (25 October 2023; checked 1 October 2026) supplies a primary-source refinement: neutron-star mergers also produce heavy elements. SP-04 must distinguish the AQA simplified supernova account from a complete modern nucleosynthesis account; consult a specialist before final narration. No false precision from game-scale particles or compressed astronomical scenes.

### Whole-course release checklist

- [ ] Select board(s), qualification(s), target exam year and routes; record source versions/date and ownership of annual refresh.
- [ ] Resolve every official subsection and clause to a lecture objective, explanatory evidence and independently marked assessment item; document exclusions rather than hide them.
- [ ] Audit C/P/H at **objective/item level**, including mixed sections, and test all four learner routes with no Foundation lock caused by a Higher task.
- [ ] Verify twelve Energy lectures, all eight areas, every unit assessment, every capstone and cross-area prerequisites; keep stable IDs when reorganising.
- [ ] Review stores versus pathways, energy/charge accounting, mass/weight, vectors/third-law bodies, phase/temperature, induction/motor distinction, random decay and model uncertainty.
- [ ] Verify every equation, symbol, unit, conversion, rounding/tolerance, supplied constant and domain condition against source and independent calculations.
- [ ] Audit every mathematical and WS code in §15 with actual learner evidence, including graph construction, distributions, scatter/correlation, systematic error, peer review and explanation.
- [ ] Cover all ten Physics/eight Trilogy physics required practical preparations, every required part and AT code; keep virtual evidence and school hands-on records distinct.
- [ ] Validate each simulation against an educational model and trusted test cases; document ideal assumptions, synthetic noise, numerical stability and game-scale mappings.
- [ ] Author/review original narration, diagrams, datasets, exercises, hints and solutions; verify factual source/licensing records and no false exam-board approval claim.
- [ ] Run educator, accessibility and learner pilots; test touch/keyboard, captions, graph alternatives, low-motion/silent modes and timing independence.
- [ ] Moderate unit/capstone items across AO1/AO2/AO3; require reasoning and fresh independent/transfer tasks; avoid presenting local ratings as predicted GCSE grades.
- [ ] Review product copy: exact board/qualification/tier/year, planned/playable status, coverage limits, practical support statement and no guarantee of grades.
- [ ] Keep an issue register for failed coverage/model/assessment checks; publish only verified claims with review owner and date.

<a id="evidence"></a>
## 18. Evidence and completeness record

This document was assembled from the repository maths design and the official DfE/AQA sources linked above. Both AQA PDFs were downloaded from official hosts and their content/tier/practical headings checked. The government-linked single-science PDF was read; the current Combined PDF/index was checked for its national topic/skills structure. Official board and publisher textbook policies/listings/samples were checked where accessible. No live game was modified during curriculum document creation.

**Catalogue totals:** 8 areas, 30 units, 84 lectures, 30 unit assessments and 8 capstones. Lecture time across the complete separate-Higher catalogue is approximately 41.6–48.6 hours. This total includes EN-12, excludes other capstones, unit assessments, delayed retrieval and hands-on laboratories. Routes omit irrelevant P/H branches, so individual route time needs pilot measurement; it cannot be inferred by simply counting every mixed lecture as fully required.

**Structural audit:** 92 terminal Physics content subsection entries mapped; no unassigned subsection/counterpart identifiers detected. This is a reference/structure check, not educator certification of clause-level coverage.

**Recommended next review:** choose the commercial launch qualification/tier/year, obtain a GCSE Physics teacher’s clause-and-item audit, then author one small Energy unit with model/assessment evidence before producing the whole catalogue. The user may review the full catalogue now without needing to approve those production choices.